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THE  LIBRARY 

OF 

THE  UNIVERSITY 

OF  CALIFORNIA 
LOS  ANGELES 


I  N  DUSTRIA  L 
HOUSING 


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Ilk,  QrawJ/ili 'Book  (h.  7m 

PUBLISHERS     OF     BOOKS      FOPo 

Coal  Age  v  Electric  Railway  Journal 
Electrical  World  v  Engineering  News-Record 
American  Machinist  v  Ingenierfa  Internacional 
Engineering  &  Mining  Journal  ^  Power 
Chemical  &  Metallurgical  Engineering 
Electrical  Merchandising 


INDUSTRIAL 
HOUSING 


With    Discussion    of   Accompanying   Activities;    Such    as 

Town  Planning— Street   Systems— Development  of 

Utility  Services — and  Related  Engineering 

and   Construction    Features. 


BY 
MORRIS  KNOWLES 

BOMETIME    SUPERVISING    ENGINEER,    CAMP    MEADE,    MARYLAND,     AND     CAMP    m'i'LELLAN, 
ALABAMA;   AND   CHIEF    ENGINEER,    DIVISION    OF    PASSENGER   TRANSPORTATION    AND 
HOUSING,    EMEP.GENCY    FLEET   CORPORATION,     UNITED   STATES    SHIPPING   BOARD; 
MEMBER    AMERICAN   INSTITUTE    CONSULTING    ENGINEERS;    MEMBER    AMER- 
ICAN  SOCIETY  OF  CIVIL  ENGINEERS;  MEMBER  AMERICAN  CITY    PLANNING 
INSTITUTE;      MEMBER    INTERNATIONAL    GARDEN    CITIES    AND   TOWN- 
PLANNING     ASSOCIATION;     MEMBER     TOWN      PLANNING     INSTI- 
TUTE   (GT.   BRIT.);     MEMBER   NATIONAL    HOUSING   ASSOCIA- 
TION; DIRECTOR,  DEPT.  OF  MUNICIPAL  AND  SANITARY 
ENGINEERING,     UNIVERSITY    OF    PITTSBURGH. 


First  Edition 


McGRAW-HILL  BOOK  COMPANY,  Inc. 
NEW   YORK:    239   WEST  39TH  STREET 

LONDON;     (i  &  8  BOUVERIE  ST.,  E.  C.  4 

19  20 


Copyright,  1(.)20,  uy  the 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Company,  Inc. 


T  11  K      M  X   V  I .  ir      I  •  I*  i:  H   S      V    I  I  M   K      1  ■ 


I\  I  R(  »DI  <    I  l<  »\ 

Thi*  book  h 
author   and    I  of    the 

in  the  developmei  town  plan  and  in  the  up-build- 

ing i 

Unusual   and   m 

U  'I  with   and   tak<-  |»:irt    u 

:il  worker*.     Th(  i  -I  from  the  < 

oompi  :iiil'  for  man- 

<.f  smaller  mining 

groups  of  ill— r»- —  •  •*  t..i  -ii.ni!!.  a.    They  also 
from  the  beginning  of  investigations  for  determinii  g 
fnl  til  In  i<m  of  a  completed  program.     Thus  the  need  of '; 

luiremei 
from  bcginnii  the  enti 

ity . 

•   ■    • 
linn  ipment  <>(  housing  pi 

Pint — followini 

workmen  during  t h«-  livii  . 

at  Ira 

I  surroundji 

and  ham  i 

mmunit} 

All  of  tl 

■urroundii 


I 


vi  INTRODUCTION 

planned  for  economy  and  efficiency,  but  also  the  utilities  and 
facilities  that  go  to  make  up  the  town  and  its  business  and 
social  life. 

The  author  and  his  organization  had  the  good  fortune  to 
participate  in  the  early  months  of  our  entrance  into  the  war,  in 
the  creation  of  quarters  for  troops  at  one  of  the  National  Army 
cantonments,  and  one  of  the  National  Guard  tent  camps,  built 
dining  1917.  Later,  being  called  to  assist  in  the  building  of 
towns  for  the  housing  of  ship  workers,  it  was  his  good  fortune  to 
sit  in  on  the  consideration  of  the  plan  and  scope  of  the  program 
for  this  purpose.  Both  were  unique  experiences  and  intensified 
the  belief  (if  this  were  necessary)  that  no  one  profession  is  com- 
petent to  cope  with  the  difficulties  of  housing. 

Gathered  together  from  all  parts  of  the  country  were  men  from 
all  walks  of  life;  imbued  with  the  idea  of  helping  to  build  homes, 
to  attract  to  ship  yards,  to  build  ships,  to  send  the  troops  and 
supplies  to  France,  to  help  win  the  war.  Many  had  never  heard 
of  each  other  and  several  only  knew  of  the  other's  reputation  in 
his  chosen  line.  Most  of  the  recruits  were  strong  individualists, 
had  done  things  worth  while;  and  many  had  not,  at  least  for 
years,  worked  under  the  direction  of  others  or  in  multiple  harness. 
What  wonder,  then,  that  it  took  some  time  to  settle  down  and  get 
up  speed,  which  later  so  characterized  the  work  as  to  win  the 
commendation  of  the  Senate  Committee,  which  was  called  upon 
to  investigate  these  activities  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corpora- 
tion of  the  United  States  Shipping  Board.  The  writer  would  not 
have  missed  this  opportunity  for  service,  nor  this  development  of 
new  experience,  for  all  of  the  chapters  in  his  life  which  had  gone 
before. 

He  deems  it  a  stroke  of  good  fortune  that  he  had  the  privilege 
of  associating  with  the  pioneers  who  were  the  leaders  in  the  pro- 
gram  and  who,  with  all  the  background  of  personal  accomplish- 
ments, sank  personality  in  the  common  purpose.  Early  and 
always  then-  wns  an  appreciation  by  all  that  team  work,  esprit 
de  corps,  fitting  of  endeavors  as  well  as  of  abilities  together,  were 
Deeded  to  bring  about  the  result.  And  the  result  was  achieved. 
Witness  Hie  home-like  communities  from  Maine  to  the  Gulf, 
along  the  Atlantic  and  OD  the<  rreal  hakes  and  even  on  the  Pacific, 
which  testify  to  the  wisdom  and  excellence  of  the  program.  It  is 
also  a  tribute  to  the  far-sightedness  of  the  planning  and  the  per- 
sonal magnetism  of  the  leaders  of  the  organization. 


comi 

i 

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able    • 

l>iit  1.. 

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will   t 

will  ! 

I 

I 


viii  INTRODUCTION 

the  author  is  a  practicing  engineer  himself,  this  book  is  not  writ- 
ten solely  for  the  engineer  or  from  his  point  of  view  alone;  neither 
is  it  a  tn-atisc  on  technical  practice.  It  has  been  written  in  the 
realization  of  a  fad  now  generally  acknowledged  that,  in  addi- 
tion to  the  architect,  who  is  first  thought  of  because  we  are 
thinking  in  terms  of  houses  and  homes,  there  must  be  present  the 
town  planner,  the  landscape  gardener,  the  engineer,  the  sani- 
tarian, the  utility  designer,  the  constructor,  the  realtor,  the  civi- 
cist  ami  the  public  spirited  business  representative. 

To  all  of  these  and  to  city  officials — particularly  the  City 
Managers,  Directors  of  Public  Works  and  Municipal  Engineers 
and  Architects-  this  book  is  dedicated,  with  an  earnest  hope 
that  it  will  appeal  as  filling  a  need  where  no  adequate  treatise 
has  heretofore  existed. 

Pittsburgh,  Penna.,  Morris    Knowles. 

August,  1920. 


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11 


xii  CONTENTS 

Page 

Cost  of  Modern  Industrial  Towns 16 

Elements  Considered 16 

Hypothetical  Example 17 

Another  Example 10 

Average  of  I.  S.  Housing  (  orporation 20 

Lorain,  Emergency  Fieri  Corporation 20 

Marginal  Deficit  or  Necessity  for  Subsidy 21 

Statement  of  Requirements ■■  21 

Income  Available  for  Kent 22 

Means  to  Meel  Deficit 23 

Procedure  of  Organization  and  Finance 25 

Policy  as  to  Home  Ownership 25 

Company-Owned  Houses 25 

Privately  Owned  Houses 26 

Cooperatively  Owned  Houses 27 

Forms  of  Building  Organizations 27 

Loan  and  Realty  Associations 28 

Housing  Corporation ->s- 

Company  Housing  Bureau :>0 

Technical  Program :*0 

ycc<\  for  a  Program 31 

Preliminary  Work 32 

Number  and  Types  of  Houses  Required 32 

Selection  of  Site 32 

Projected  Development  of  the  Site W 

Budget  and  Program ;i;{ 

Design  and  Construction 33 

Building  Staff 34 

CHAPTER   111 
Selection  of  Site 

Introduction 36 

Hot  m no  Site  in  Relation  to  Industrial  Location 30 

Industrial  and  Economic  Requirements  of  Planl 37 

Housing  a*  a  Factor  in  Planl  Location 38 

[DERATIONS  AFFECTING  ToWNSlTE  LOCATION 40 

Distance  Between  Planl  and  Town 40 

Factors  which  Relieve  Distances 10 

Map  Showing  Area  of  Choice 

Advantages  of  Town  and  Planl  Adjacent  .    .    .    .  .11 

Di    ^vantages  of  Town  and  Planl  Adjacent 42 

Decision  Rests  upon  Many  Factors 42 

Urban  Versue  Rural  'Towns '-' 

Policy  of  Home  Ownerships '- 

I  nidion  and    Maintenance  Considerations ,:< 

D   advantages  of  Company  Towns *3 


1 
I  I 

Mi  ' 

i 
l 


i  \i-i  I  i:  l\ 


i » 
i  > 

i  :  ■ 


xiv  CONTENTS 

Page 

Improvements 75 

Playgrounds 76 

Location  and  Area 76 

Improvements 77 

Athletic  Fields 77 

Cemeteries 78 

The  Street  System 79 

Types  of  Street  Systems 79 

Rectangular  or  Gridiron 79 

Radial  or  Diagonal 81 

Formal  or  Geometrical 81 

Irregular  or  Haphazard 82 

Contour  Streets 82 

Rational  Layout  of  Streets 84 

Classification  of  Streets 85 

Arterial  Streets  or  Main  Thoroughfares 85 

Subarterial  or  Secondary  Streets 87 

Residential  Streets 88 

Business  Streets 89 

Streets  with  Car  Tracks 90 

Parkways  and  Boulevards 90 

Alleys 91 

Details  of  Street.  Design 93 

Width  of  Roadway 93 

Sidewalks 95 

Court  Streets 95 

Orientation 96 

Intersections 97 

Profile  and  Grade 97 

Easements 190 

Location  of  Street  Railways 191 

Utility  Location  a  Factor 192 

Cost  of  Utilities  Affected  by  Lot  Sizes 193 

Sr.M.M Aitv  of  Procedure 197 

Topographical  Survey  and  Map 198 

Regional  Maps 199 

Site  Investigation 199 

Preliminary  Town  Plan 119 

Final  Plan  of  Development H9 

Detail  and  Working  Plans Ill 

Recent  CoMMxrNin  Developments Ill 

Ojibway,  Ontario m 

Loveland  Farms 113 

Yorkship  Village u4 


(  II  \l-l  I 


\vi  CONTENTS 

CHAPTER   \  I 

Water  Supply 

Page 

Preface 160 

Quantity  of  Water  Reqi  [red .    .  150 

Influences  Affecting  Consumption 150 

Metering 160 

Detection  of  Leakage  .-111(1  Waste 151 

Other  Factors 152 

Consumption  of  Water  for  Various  Purposes 153 

Domestic  Use 153 

Commercial  Use 153 

Public  Use 155 

Loss  and  Waste 155 

Total  Consumption 156 

Variations  in  Consumption 157 

Standards  of  Quality 157 

General 157 

Sanitary  Quality 158 

U.  S.  Treasury  Standard 158 

Classification  of  Great  Lakes  Water 158 

General  Standard 158 

Physical  Quality 158 

Color 158 

Turbidity L59 

Odor 159 

Chemical  Quality 159 

Organic 160 

Mineral 160 

Selection  op  Source  of  Supply 161 

Extensions  of  Existing  Supply 161 

Quantity 161 

Quality 161 

Pressure 161 

New  Supply  System 162 

Ground  Water  Supplies 162 

Surface  Water  Supplies 163 

Summary  of  Factors  Affecting  Choice  of  Supply 166 

Purification  Systems 166 

Preface L66 

Plain  Sedimentation 167 

Results 167 

Filtration 167 

Slow  Sand  Filters 168 

Rapid  Sand  Filtera 168 

<  Coagulation 169 

Sterilization       ....                                           I"" 


I    W  ATKM 


<  H  M-i  I  i:   \  II 

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Pipe  La)  iiik  ... 

I    IN   X  ' 


181 


xviii  CONTEXTS 

Page 

Quantity  of  Domestic  Sewage 193 

Flow  from  Commercial  and  Industrial  Districts 194 

Leakage  or  Infiltration 195 

Design  of  System 196 

General  Considerations 1^6 

Rate  of  Flow  to  Provide 197 

Details  of  Computations 199 

Velocities  and  Grades 20° 

Minimum  Sizes -"- 

Depth  and  Location 202 

Appurtenances ^  "* 

House  Connections 204 

Manholes 206 

Joints  and  Fillers 208 

Flush  Tanks  and  Manholes 208 

Inverted  Siphons 209 

Foundations 209 

Pumping  Stations 209 

Storm  Drainage  Systems 219 

General  Considerations 21U 

Rainfall  and  Run-off 21° 

Rates  to  Provide  for 211 

Run-off 212 

Extent  of  System '•    •    ■    214 

Roof  Water 214 

Street  Water 215 

Details  of  Design 216 

Discharge  Formula 21^ 

Velocities  and  Grades 217 

Minimum  Size 217 

Depth  and  Location **• 

Joints  and  Filler ' .217 

House  Connections "*' 

Manholes 2l8 

Catch  Basins  and  Inlets 218 

2 1  'i 
Location 

Combined  Sewers 219 

Quantity  and  Capacity 220 


Velocities  and  Grade 


220 


Depth  and  Location 221 

Catch  Baeins 221 

Sewage  Treatment  and  Disposai ->J1 

General  Considerationfl • -- 

Purposes  of  Sewage  Disposal "** 

Character  and  Constituents  of  Sewage 224 

Decomposition  of  Sewage ~~ 

Disposal  by  Dilution  and  Diffusion -'-'' 

1  227 

Authoritative  Opinions 


I 

n 

I  > 

<  ii  \ri  i  R  \  in 

IB 

i 
I 


xx  CONTENTS 

Page 

Reduction 252 

Incineration it,u 

Type  Required 253 

Capacity 253 

General  Purposes zo° 

Rubbish  Only 254 

Station  Design 254 

Summary  and  Conclusions 254 


CHAPTER  IX 

Gas  and  Electric  Service 

Gas  Service 256 


Introduction . 


256 


Advantages  of  Gas  Service 256 

Supply  op  Gas — Character  and  Sources 257 

Natural  Gas 257 

Artificial  Gas 257 

Coal  Gas 257 

Water  Gas 258 

Producer  Gas 258 

Coke  Oven  Gas 258 

Source  of  Supply 258 

Public  Service 258 

Industrial  Supply 259 

By-Product  Ovens 259 

Utilization  of  Gas 259 

Heating 26° 

Cooking 26° 

Lighting 26° 

Amount  of  Gas  Used 261 

Average  and  Maximum 261 

Allowance  for  Artificial  Gas 261 

Transmission 

Pressures  • 

Pipe  Sizes 2^2 

Kind  of  Pipe 263 

Drips 264 

Regulators 264 

Distribution  System 

Low  Pressure  Distribution 265 

Regulators. 2(J5 

Size  of  Mains 2(J6 

High  Pressure  Distribution 2^7 

Design  of  Distribution ■ 267 

General 268 

Slope  and  Drips 268 


CONTENTS  xxi 

Valves  and  Bags 

Depth  of  Laying  269 

Size  of  Pipes.  268 

Services                           .  .                                                                      269 

Tapping  Main             .  269 

Si/.- 269 

Curl.  Cooks  270 

Slope  and  I  hip  .    .                                 270 

Plans  and  Specificul  ion  -  270 

Plans  ....  -'7<i 

Specification!*,  271 

I  lbc rnic  \i.  Sbbvk  1.  -'7  I 

Introduction.  271 

Soi  R<  i    "i    Po\t  i  H  Si  I'i'i.i 

Purchase  from  Existing  I  tilitj                                                                 273 
Local  '  ienera1  ing  Stal  i<>n 


271 

Steam  Plants 274 

Internal  <  Jombusl  ion  I  nil  i 

Hydro-Electric  Units  .  27 1 

Capacity -7  1 

I  i;  IN8MIS8K  >M 275 

Righl  of  Way   ....  275 

Voltage  ...  275 

Line  ( !ons1  rucl  ion  276 

1  tasTRmi  itoh  Ststi  i  276 

Substations 276 

Simple  Transfoi  iner.  276 

Rotary  <  Converter,  276 

Primary  1  nstribution  277 

Voltage  ami  Phase  277 

Location 277 

Overhead  or  I  ndergrounii  -" 
Overhead  .  •  278 
Underground     .    . 

( Sombination  '  lircuits  279 
i     I  distribution 

Voltage 280 

Pb     Lint  280 

I  nderground  281 

Ben  ices.  281 

Illustration  of  Types  of  Distribution  281 

Noreg  V  Qlage  28 1 

I    I II  1/  ITION  .......    . 

■  i  Lighting 
Histon. 
Methods 
<  Sonst  in'  *  i.i  kiii 

!  28  '• 


xxii  CONTENTS 

Page 

Spacing 284 

Poles 285 

Transformers 285 

Residence  Service 285 

Lighting 285 

Power  Application 286 

Miscellaneous  Service 286 

Fire  and  Police  Call 286 

Telephone  and  Telegraph 286 

Plans  and  Specifications 287 

Instruction  for  Plans 287 

Specifications 287 

Illustrations  of  Installations 288 

Buckman  Village 288 

Atlantic  Heights 290 

Loveland  Farms 292 

CHAPTER  X 

Houses  for  Families 

Introduction 293 

Standards  and  Requirements 293 

Basis  for  Standards 293 

Permissible  Rental 294 

Cost  a  Factor 294 

Other  Influences  on  Standards 295 

Standards  from  Experience 295 

Number  of  Rooms 296 

Furniture  Requirements 297 

Minimum  Room  Sizes 297 

Recommendations  of  Authorities 298 

Veiller's  Views 299 

Groben's  Recommendations 299 

Allen's  Ideas 299 

Kilham's  Opinions 300 

U.  S.  Dept.  Labor  Standards 300 

Albany  Health  Dept.  Regulations 300 

Ontario  Housing  Committee  Objects 300 

Data  of  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics 301 

Recommended  Minimum  Requirements 302 

Grading  of  Houses 304 

Types  and  Grouping  of  Houses  and  Accessories 308 

Types  of  Houses 308 

Effect  on  Cost 308 

Explanation  of  Types 308 

Grouping  of  Types 314 

The  Garage 316 


CONTENTS  xxiii 

Paoi 

Sing     Garage  ...   .  :;ic, 

3 1 7 

1  ■            I  onsl  ruction  :;  1 7 

Hi  ii  in  -...   I  i  i  ii  m... i  i  317 

318 

Building  Materials  ;!1  s 

1  .ii \  ir< m iin-n t.    ....  ;;h 

I         Maintenance              Persona]  Preferei  ..^n 
I    •  ■  ( Joncrcte  I  [ouae           ... 

Del         if  Cons!  ruction  ...  321 
of  Materials  in  <  kmstrucl  ion 

Tabulation  of  House  Costi  324 

I  )|   i  ERMIN  ITION  Ol     \'  I  I  IMKOD  \  I  [ON      R  i  Ql   I  K i  .' • 

I  orec  i  ted  Pa)  roll 

Number  and  <  !rad<          1 1       •     Requin  <\  327 

Quarters  Required  for  Single  Workmen   .  ;;js 
Quarters  for  \\  omen  and  Minors 
Summary       II  tusesand  Rooms  Required 


CHAPTEH    XI 

Buildings  Other  Than  Houses 

Introduction 

( !haract<  r  of  Special  Buildings 

Building  Materials :;:::: 

i  ■  ir  Single  Mem 

Boarding  Bouses 

Small  Boarding  Houses 

•  r  Boarding  1 1 
uremente         I         at  i  !rades  I  .7 

1     ide  F  Buildings    .    . 
Grade  E  Buildings  .    . 
Ie  1)  Buildings  .    . 

Qfl  \l.  ~ 

M  magemenl  of  Boarding  11"   -• 

Boarding  Ho  341 

Storm  wi>  Atari  mints  .  .;  1 1 

liremente  of  Store  Rooms  :\  13 
Ri  quirements  of  Apartmi  nl 

I  prior  Appearance  .  344 

nbined  Building 

l..iiiin!r\  Capacity 
Baker)    Vrrangemenl 
Plant 

II  ispital.    .    .    . 

Hi  ii  ;• 


xxiv  CONTENTS 

Page 

Churches 350 

School  Houses 350 

Theatres 352 

Community  House 352 

CHAPTER  XII 

Administration  and  Supervision  of  Construction 

Organization  and  Planning 354 

Character  and  Scope 354 

Group  Management 354 

Executive  Control 354 

Organization  Chart 355 

Method  of  Procedure 355 

Elements  of  Program 357 

Necessity  for  Budget 358 

Suggested  Contents 358 

Construction  Policies 359 

Force  Account 360 

Contract 360 

Selection  of  Contractor 362 

Contract  and  Specifications 363 

Purpose  of  Contract 363 

General  Provisions 363 

Specifications 364 

Supervision  of  Construction 364 

Construction  Problems 364 

Program 365 

Yards  and  Delivery  of  Materials 365 

Sanitation 366 

Fire  Protection 366 

Temporary  Water  Supply 367 

Construction  Roads 367 

Progress  and  Cost  Reports 368 

Record  Plans  and  Reports 369 

CHAPTER  XIII 
Management  of  Industrial  Towns 

Types  of  Towns 370 

Company-controlled  Towns 370 

Isolated  Company  Towns .' 371 

Suburban  Industrial  Towns 371 

Isolated  Industrial  Towns 372 

Usually  Company  Towns 372 

Supposed  Advantages 373 


COM' I  \'T. 


I  tuque  <  umlii i •  - 1 1 
I  ui  venal   rcuauti 
«  )im-  I.  uidlord 
Identity  of  Landlurd  tuid  Km  ploy  er. 

1*1  1 1 1  •   1 1  »1<    -    •>!       I  OW  I,      \|    im:i|_'i  -Mil-Ill       .       . 

ill    III  III  I   I 'I.I  II I .    .    . 
Supporting 
Functions  of  Town  Management 

1'iililn-  Ben  ices.    .    .    . 

II'.    nin 

1      nmcrcial  In'-  rpria  - 

Policing 

I        Protection 

il  >-.  -i.  in 

in.. nil   Activities,    .    .    . 

Town  Managership 

Suburban  Industrial  Towns  .    .    .    . 

Usually  Independent 

Mi-i hods  nf  Belling  Houses. 
Revenue-  Producing 
Non-Revenue-Producinj  S 
< Mint-  Public  Activities 
BlBLIOGB  \i'in 


- 
- 


[NDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

CHAPTER    I 

HISTORICAL  REVIEW 

Origin    oi    Industrial    Housing     Examples   oj     I  rial 

Hoi  bing     Tb  i    Pri  sen  r  Pr<  »bli  m 

ORIGIN  OF  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

The  housing  problem  is  as  old  as  the  human  race,  for  it  has  its 
origin  in  that  "first  law  <>f  nature"  self  preservation.  Food, 
Bhelter  and  raiment  are  essential  bo  the  satisfaction  of  this  primi- 
tive instinct,  and  ever  since  the  firsl  man  sought  Bhelter  in  his 
cave,  the  housing  problem  has  been  a  vital  part  of  the  human  life. 

Si  \  1 1. mi  \  r   OP    PrOBLI  U 

I ',ut  the  need  for  Bhelter  is  only  the  origin  of  the  problem.  The 
Dormal  man  has  other  healthy  instincts;  for  work — t ho  chance 
to  express  himself  in  creative  activity;  for  play  -the  opportunity 
to  re-create  himself  during  the  leisure  hours  when  he  is  free  from 
mployment;  for  love  and  the  making  of  a  home  in  which  he 
can  express  his  affections  and  his  devotion  to  his  wife  and  in  the 
raising  of  his  children;  and  for  religion  the  establishment  of  a 
righl  relation  between  himself  and  his  Creator.  Somuchofthe 
time  of  the  man  and  of  the  members  of  his  family  is  Bpent  in  the 
home,  that  the  latter  reacts  upon  the  satisfaction  of  all  of  these 
instincts,  and  the  housing  problem  thus  becomes  the  home  prob- 
lem, the  problem  of  surrounding  the  home  with  an  environment 
conducive  to  a  full  and  healthy  lit''-. 

Moreover,  the  housing  problem  is  not  one  of  the  house  alone. 
Man  is  a  Bocial  animal,  and  early  exchanged  his  normal  life  for  a 
gathering  in  settlements,  the  growth  of  which  hae 
the  most    marked  characteristics  of  the  growth  of  civilisation. 
The  environment  of  the  home,  therefore,  includes  the  homi 
other  human  beings,  the  methods  of  passing  to  and  from  them, 

i 


2  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

and  to  and  from  the  working  places  of  their  occupants.  And 
so  the  housing  problem  has  become  related  to  a  vast  complexity 
of  other  problems,  all  of  which  must  be  taken  into  account  in  its 
solution. 

The  Individualistic  Era. — Prior  to  our  present  industrial  age, 
the  provision  of  houses,  and  the  determination  of  whether  they  and 
their  environment  should  fulfill  the  requirements  outlined  above 
or  not,  depended  largely  upon  the  intelligence,  energy  and  thrift 
of  the  individual.  During,  and  for  a  long  time  after  the  primi- 
tive age  and  the  period  of  serfdom,  the  family  supplied  all  of 
its  own  needs — food,  raiment,  and  shelter.  And  later,  even  when 
specialization  began  to  be  well  developed,  production  was  car- 
ried on  in  small  units.  Men  were  largely  capitalists  as  well  as 
workers,  house  builders  as  well  as  home  makers,  so  that  any  man 
of  energy  and  thrift  could  have  the  opportunity  of  exercising  a 
measure  of  control  over  his  destiny. 

The  Factory  System. — The  invention  of  the  steam  engine  and 
the  development  of  the  factory  system,  however,  completely 
changed  the  housing  problem,  as  they  likewise  altered  all  the 
other  factors  in  life.  Specialization  has  been  carried  to  a 
point  where  some  of  our  workers  spend  their  working  hours  re- 
peating, times  without  number,  a  single  mechanical  operation. 
And  out  of  the  wages  he  receives  for  devoting  his  energies  to  this 
single  function  in  the  supply  of  the  wants  of  the  social  organism, 
he  must  provide  for  himself  and  for  his  family  food,  clothing, 
shelter,  recreation  and  all  the  needs  which  once  were  provided 
within  the  family  itself,  and  which  must  be  fulfilled  in-order  to 
promote  a  normal  family  life. 

At  the  same  time,  specialization  applies  to  all  the  other  ele- 
ments in  production.  One  man  devotes  himself  to  the  designing 
of  the  machines,  which  permit  the  workman,  by  his  thousands 
of  repetitions  of  a  single  task,  to  vastly  increase  his  output. 
Still  another  tends  the  boilers,  which  supply  the  force  to  the 
machines;  a  separate  group  mine  the  coal  to  operate  the  boilers; 
others  supply  the  skill  in  management,  which  co-ordinates  the 
efforts  of  the  workers  and  still  others  control  and  direct  the  use  of 
capital  and  credit,  which  supply  the  life  blood  of  the  whole 
industrial  organism. 

Therefore,  even  though  wages  were  sufficient  to  meet  the  legiti- 
mate needs  of  the  worker  and  his  family,  and  even  though  he 
should  be  thrifty  enough  to  save  the  cost  of  providing  himself 


HISTORICAL  /.'/.l  //.'ii 

witli  a  home,  the  factory  system  and  its  specialization  do  not 
conduce  to  the  development  of  his  initiative  and  activity  along 
lines  bo  far  removed  from  the  j"l>  which  In-  knows,  as  i-  house 
building.  House  design  and  construction,  and  t In-  plannij 
groups  of  houses  have  themselves  become  highly  specialized 
have  all  the  building  trades  and  supply  lines,  as  well  as  the  <i«< lit 
and  financial  machinery  in  use  in  connection  with  such  opera- 
tions. Small  wonder,  then,  that  the  time  has  long  passed  when 
individual  action  can  hope  in  maintain  a  supply  of  homes  equal 
to  the  demand,  or  thai  the  law  of  supply  and  demand  and  the 
need  of  specialization  should  have  called  into  being  tin-  real 
be  operator,  the  speculative  builder,  the  industrial  housing 
problem,  and  the  necessity  of  intervention  by  governments  and 
industries,  in  order  to  attempt  a  solution. 

I  >i  \ '\n   \  l    ni     |  \i»i  8TR1  \l.    I  I"i  SING 

The  recognition  of  the  existence  of  this  problem  came  early  in 
the  history  of  tin-  factory  system.  Hut .  as  frequently  happens, 
Buch  recognition  was  sporadic  .•  t r » <  1  partial,  and  no!  Lr<rn  r.i  1  and 
complete.  Thus,  the  problem  has  grown  out  of  all  proportion 
id  remedial  measures,  and  the  resull  has  been  the  unhealthy  ;in<l 
anti-social  housing  conditions  in  our  cities  and  industrial  towns, 
with  which  all  are  familiar;  and  a  description  of  which  is  no  part 
of  i li«'  subject  of  i hi^  hook. 

Looking  back,  with  the  discernmenl   born  of  experience,  it  is 
see  the  reason  for  these  conditions.     The  factorj  syst<  m 
required  the  concentration  of  the  working  population  in  cities, 
and  those  cities  have  grown  by  leaps  and  bounds.     Workers  have 
come  into  the  ted  areas  from  rural  districts,  with  habits 

and  standards  of  living  entirely  unsuited  to  the  new  conditions, 
and  with  no  realization  of  1 1 1 « -  effect  of  these  circun  upon 

their  health,  comfort  and  efficiency.     At  the  same  time,  " la 

was  the  order  of  the  day,  and  house  and  town  building 
•    private    greed    and    unenlightened    self-int< 
thus  our  cities  grew,   without    intelligent    planning,— a   hel 

geneous  mixture  of  the  Lr I  and  bad     and  with  a  disregard  for 

consequences  which  threatened  social  Buicide,  through  the 
growth  of  the  congestion  and  the  resulting  insanitary  surround- 
ings and  evil  social  condit  ions. 

Early  Efforts  ami   Improvement.     Three   distinct    pi 
be  distinguished  in  the  history  of  the  movement  to 


4  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

conditions,  which  may  be  designated  as  periods  of  criticism, 
study  and  construction. 

The  first  includes  the  recognition  of  the  problem,  and  some 
attempts  clouded  by  other  policies,  by  such  early  humanitarians 
as  Robert  Owen;  and  the  work  of  civic  and  social  workers  and 
charitable  organizations,  in  bringing  home  to  the  world  the  im- 
portance of  the  problem,  the  dangers  of  the  conditions  which 
were  developing  and  the  opportunities  for  social  progress  through 
better  housing.  In  this  phase,  data  and  opinions  were  compiled, 
and  much  light  thrown  upon  the  relation  of  the  housing  problem 
to  the  individual,  to  industry  and  to  the  state.  At  the  same  time, 
various  unrelated  and  often  groping  efforts  were  made  to  improve 
conditions,  many  of  them  dictated  by  philanthropy,  and  a  begin- 
ning was  made  in  corrective  legislation,  requiring  the  abolition 
of  slums. 

Study  of  More  Complete  Remedies. — In  the  second  phase 
of  the  movement,  ways  and  means  for  solving  the  problem  more 
completely  were  studied  and  discussed,  and  the  industrial  housing 
problem  began  to  be  distinguished  as  a  special  form  of  the  general 
housing  question.  Restrictive  legislation — fixing  minimum 
standards  for  light,  air,  sanitation  and  convenience — and  the 
establishment  of  municipal  housing  bureaus,  to  pass  on  plans 
and  to  make  inspections,  were  characteristic  of  this  period. 

Various  pioneer  attempts  were  made  to  solve  the  problem  in 
some  of  its  phases,  by  the  construction  of  the  early  industrial 
towns  and  mining  camps,  and  by  building  of  mill  tenements  and 
company  boarding  houses  in  early  New  England  developments. 
The  period  was  characterized  by  incorrect  social  hypotheses  and  a 
complete  lack  of  consideration  of  this  all-important  aspect  of  the 
industrial  housing  problem.  A  direct  result  was  too  often  an 
academic  paternalism,  and  misdirected  charity  which  produced 
its  most  dismal  failures  in  America,  where  native  individualism 
and  independence  are  directly  opposed. 

During  this  stage,  progress  was  facilitated  by  co-ordination 
with  other  movements  and  influences,  such  as  better  sani- 
tary standards  and  practice,  and  the  development  of  the  town 
planning  idea.  A  powerful  influence  has  been  directed  upon  the 
movement  for  better  housing  by  the  development  of  public 
health,  sanitary  science  and  engineering,  and  of  the  art  of  town 
planning. 


HISTORH    \l    REVIEW 

The  discovery  <•!  the  germ  theory  of  disease  made  possible 
tl,,.  exacl  definition  of  the  dangers  of  conditions  which  had  long 
been  condemned  as  evil.  It  also  permitted  the  formulation,  in 
exact  terms,  of  the  requirements  of  health  with  reaped  to  light, 
air,  cleanliness,  quality  of  water  Bupply,  disposition  of  human 
wastes,  etc.  A.I  the  same  time,  the  relation  of  the  arrangemenl  of 
Mocks  and  streets  to  health,  convenience  and  amenity, 
and  the  possibilil  ies  of  attractive  as  well  as  practical  town  I.-. 
have  become  so  clearly  demonstrated  thai  h  is  do  longer  possible 
parate  the  housing  problem  from  that  of  city  and  regional 
planning. 

\  third  tendency,  which  has  had  powerful  influence  upon  the 
development  of  the  industrial  housing  problem,  has  been  the 
movement  of  some  of  our  largest  industries  out  of  existing 
cities  into  suburban  or  self-contained  town-,  created  for  the 
purpose  of  housing  the  labor  Bupply.  Graham  R.  Taylor1 
has  well  expressed  this  movemenl  as  the  resultant  of  centrifugal 
ami  centripetal  forces  of  cheap  land,  low  taxes  and  room  for 
growth,  pushing  industry  out  of  the  <■« >n lt«  - » •  •■  1  city  area;  and 
railroad  facilities  and  proximity  to  markets  and  labor  supply, 
holding  industrj  in  the  ueighborh I  of  urban  oent< 

The  effect  of  this  lasl  tendency  has  been  to  open  up  an  entire, 
new  field  of  opportunity  in  designing  industrial  vill.m.-.  down 
to  the  last  detail;  thus  they  may  best  serve  the  needs  of  the 
human  elements,  and  of  the  industry  through  which  these  latter 
make  their  economic  contribution  to  society. 

Construction    and     Prevention. — The     present  the 

movement  for  better  housing  may  be  described  as  one  of  pre- 
ventive, constructive  and  economic  activity.  The  value  of  the 
proverbial  ounce  of  prevention  has  been  recognized  and  the 
criticism  of  existing  conditions  is  being  com  Lined  with  the  results 
of  academic  studies  and  with  the  practical  lessons  learned  from 
pioneer  attempts  al  improvement.  <  >n  this  basis,  the  solution 
of  the  indust  rial  housing  problem  is  being  sought  in  the  co-ordina- 
tion <>f  the  industrial,  civic,  municipal,  and  national 
agen<                    o  bring  about   the  construction  of  sanitary  and 

attractive    homes,    grouped    in    convenient    and    healthful    t< 

under  conditions  which  will  permit  the  workingman  to  rent  or 
buy  a  home  within  the  limits  of  his  resoui 

•  "Satellite  <  'itii    ."  1915. 


6  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

EXAMPLES  OF  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 
Before  the  War 

The  earliest  examples  of  industrial  housing  were  of  two 
types,  the  mill  tenements  and  boarding  houses,  and  the  mining 
"camps." 

Mill  Tenements. — The  first  textile  mills  were  established  in 
towns,  where  a  labor  supply  existed  and  could  be  drawn  upon. 
As  congestion  led  to  bad  conditions,  men  like  Robert  Owen,  at 
New  Lanark  in  Scotland,  and  Francis  Cabot  Lowell,  in  Massa- 
chusetts, endeavored  to  improve  conditions  by  constructing 
"model"  mill  tenements  and  boarding  houses;  "model,"  that  is, 
for  those  days,  about  the  beginning  of  the  nineteenth  century. 
They  would  not  compare  favorably  with  one  of  our  modern  in- 
dustrial villages.  Thus  these  earliest  examples  were  primarily 
philanthropic  in  origin. 

Mining  Camps. — The  mining  industry,  however,  differs  from 
others  in  that  it  usually  is  carried  on  in  isolated,  uninhabited 
localities  where,  just  as  on  construction  jobs,  some  type  of  shelter 
for  the  labor  force  must  necessarily  be  provided.  Under  these 
conditions,  and  without  the  ideals  that  were  back  of  the  first 
mill  tenements,  the  first  mining  villages  (and  many  of  the  later 
ones)  grew  up  as  garish  groups  of  shanties,  without  adequate 
sanitary  facilities;  and  absolutely  devoid  of  comfort,  attractive- 
ness and  opportunity  for  recreation.  Such  villages  have  been 
deservedly  called  "camps"  and  "patches,"  and  whether  they 
have  existed  at  mines  or  factories,  they  have  done  incalculable 
damage  to  the  spirit  of  American  industrial  labor. 

Early  Industrial  Towns. — During  the  latter  part  of  the  nine- 
teenth century,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the  twentieth,  industrial 
concentration  and  the  movement  of  factories  to  the  suburbs  had 
progressed  far  enough,  so  that  industrial  housing  experiments 
began  to  appear  on  a  more  important  scale  than  the  early  mill 
villages  and  mining  camps. 

Pullman,  constructed  between  1880  and  1885,  and  Gary, 
started  about  1906,  are  typical  as  well  as  two  of  the  most  impor- 
tant examples.  In  each  case,  a  great  industrial  corporation 
created,  out  of  undeveloped  nature,  a  complete  city,  where  va- 
cant fields  had  been  before.  And  in  each  case  failure  to  solve 
the  human  problem  and  to  promote  sound  conditions  resulted 
at  Pullman,  because  of  the  unwise  paternalism  of  I  lie  company's 


HISTORH  AL  HI.  \  II.  ll  7 

attitude  toward  its  employees;  and  al  Garj  because  there  was 
left  i«>  exploiting  speculators  the  most  difficult  pari  of  the 
problem,  the  housing  of  the  unskilled  worker,  and  because 
nothing  adequate  was  done  to  relieve  the  monotony  <»t"  the 
[ndiana  Band  dunes. 

Other  equally  effective  examples  could  readily  be  cited,  but  as 
the  object  of  this  review  is  to  trace  the  history  of  the  develop- 
ment of  the  industrial  housing  problem  and  its  solution  and  no! 
to  catalogue  the  experiments  thai  have  been  tried,  these  typical 
examples  w  ill  serve  i he  purpo 

The  Garden  City  Movement.  During  the  period  when  these 
early  experiments  were  being  tried,  the  garden  city  movement  in 
England  and  on  the  continenl  was  gaining  headway,  and  began 
to  make  its  influence  felt  in  America.  Such  attractive  develop- 
ments as  rlampstead,  Bounville,  Harbourne  and  Letchworth 
were  widely  pictured  to  our  industrial  companies  and  town 
planners  as  models.  Impetus  was  thus  given  i«>  the  idea  of 
planning  industrial  villages  in  their  entirety,  and  to  the  accen- 
tuation <>i'  attractiveness  as  an  element  in  prompting  healthy 
life  and  a  productive  industrial  spirit. 

At  1 1 1< -  same  time,  the  example  of  Port  Sunlight  strengthened 
the  recognition  that  paternalism  could  not  succeed  in  democratic 
America.  The  organization  and  growth  of  Co-partnership 
Tenants  Limited,  in  England,  however,  brought  out  in  a  >>.- 
tiv<-  way  the  possibility  of  making  use  of  cooperative  methods  of 
organization. 

Newer  Industrial  Towns.  Under  the  influence  of  all  these 
examples  and  forces,  the  early  mistakes  were  followed,  in  the 
early  pari  of  i he  t  went iel li  century,  by  ot  her  towns  which  showed 
progressive  growth  toward  higher  and  better  ideals  in  industrial 
housing.  The  United  States  Steel  Corporation  has  built  at 
Fairfield,  Alabama,  a  town  which  still  stands  as  an  ex- 
ample, in  many  ways,  of  the  attractive  possibilities  of  town 
building  under  centralized  control  and  intelligent  planning. 
.  at  Morgan  Park,  Minnesota,  the  Bame  corporation  built 
an  equally  attractive  development,  and  at  the  beginning  of  the 
\\  ar  plans  had  been  completed  '  I  city  at  » >jibway, 

ye1  built).     All  of  these  represent  the  best  efforts 

id f  the  best  trained  town  planners,  engineers  and  archi- 

in  the  country,  and  give  promise  of  results  which  will  p> 
far  toward  the  solution  of  the  housing  problem. 


8  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

The  work  of  this  greatest  of  industrial  corporations  has  been 
more  important,  and  has  resulted  in  the  development  of  a  more 
comprehensive  program  than  that  of  any  other  company.  But 
many  others  have  taken  part  in  the  movement,  and  before  the 
War  there  were  already  many  attractive  developments,  lo- 
cated in  all  sections  of  the  country.  Complete  lists  will  be 
found  in  the  bibliography  in  the  Appendix,  but  the  later  develop- 
ments of  some  of  the  villages  of  the  New  England  textile  mills 
and  of  the  Ohio  rubber  industries  are  particularly  notable. 

Effect  of  the  Great  War 

No  field  of  human  endeavor  escaped  the  profound  effect  of 
the  great  cataclysm  of  the  Great  War,  and  the  industrial  hous- 
ing movement  was  entirely  altered  and  made  over  by  it. 

Cantonment  Construction. — The  most  pressing  housing  need, 
upon  our  entrance  into  the  War,  was  the  provision  of  shelter  for 
the  millions  who  were  to  be  called  to  the  colors  during  their 
period  of  training.  The  construction  of  the  National  Army  can- 
tonments and  the  National  Guard  camps  resulted;  the  greatest 
building  construction  program  ever  undertaken. 

While  the  work  of  the  Construction  Division  of  the  Army  can- 
not properly  be  considered  as  a  part  of  the  industrial  housing 
movement,  nevertheless,  it  could  not  fail  to  exercise  an  important 
influence  upon  the  latter.  For  it  gave  us,  a  new  experience  in 
comprehensive  planning  and  organization,  and  demonstrated 
anew  the  fundamental  character  and  advantage  of  large  scale 
production  and  many  of  the  principles  upon  which  the  modern 
art  of  housing  and  town  planning  are  founded. 

Governmental  Housing. — The  most  direct  influence  of  the 
War  upon  industrial  housing,  however,  grows  out  of  the  house 
and  town  construction  undertaken  by  the  Government  itself. 
Equally  important  with  the  training  of  our  soldiers  was  re-or- 
ganization of  our  industries,  so  as  to  increase  vastly  the  produc- 
tion of  those  things  which  are  most  needed  for  the  supply  of 
troops  in  modern  warfare. 

The  effect  of  this  imperative  necessity  was  deep  seated. 
Workmen  had  to  be  concentrated  in  the  vicinity  of  mills  and 
factories  and  shipyards,  and  removed  from  sections  where  the}' 
were  established  in  less  essential  industries.  Huge  additions 
had  to  be  built  to  existing  and  new  plants,  and  shipyards  were 


HISTORICAL  i;i:\  JEW 

thrown  up  over  night  in  nru  localities,  many  of  them  <»f  a  size 
er  the  imagination.     The  distribution  of  materials  of 
all  kind-,  and  the  control  of  transportation  had  to  be  taken  i 
by  the  central  Government,  in  order  i<»  make  possible  the  carry- 
ing out  of  this  stupendous  program. 

Under  these  circumstances,  1 1  * « -  ordinary  machinery  for  sup- 
plying dwellings  for  workingmen  and  their  families,  through 
private  initiative  and  through  the  activity  of  industrial  corpora- 
tions, could  nut  but  break  down.     The  Government,  then 

compelled   to  undertake   house  and   town   construction  in 
order  to  provide  for  this  unprecedented  shift  in  population. 

The  United  States  Housing  Corporation  and  the  Housing 
Division  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  were  the  result. 
The  former  planned  128  towns  or  groups,  an  estimated  co 
whirl,  was  si  12,000,000,  which  contained  19,100  dwellings,  suffi- 
cient to  house  a  total  of  21,000  families.  The  latter  made  a 
total  expenditure  of  about  $71,000,000  and  built  27  towns, 
containing  8,841  houses,  with  a  total  capacity  of  9,493  families. 

Mistakes  were  made,  of  course,  by  both  organizations,  as 
mistakes  were  made  by  every  agency  which  worked  under  the 

lire  of  tlie  conditions  created  by  the  Great  War.  and  i 
were  greater  than  they  would  have  been  in  construction  carried 
out  under  more  normal  conditions.     Hut  in  general,  the  work  of 
the    United   State-    Sousing   Corporation  and   the    Emergency 
Fleet   Corporation  cannot   fail  to  have  a   lasting  and  beneficial 
effect  upon  industrial  housing  in  America.     For,  taking  advan- 
of  the  experience  '«»  which  reference  has  been  made  above, 
both   of   these   services   called    to  their  aid  skilled  archit 
engineers,    town    planners,    landscape   developers,   realtors  and 
members  of  all  the  other  professions,  whose  work  i-  involved  in 
industrial  housing.     The  result  has  Keen  that  these  developm< 
scattered  throughout  the  country,  have  set  standards  for  compari- 
son which  will  doom  to  failure  any  less  carefully  planned  housing 

project     ill    t  he    flit  life. 

The  House  Famine. — However,  it  i-  not  only  by  these  in- 
structive experiences  that  the  War  has  affected  industrial  housing. 
The<  rovernment  program  was  only  just  begun  when  the  Armistice 
i  rigned,  and  only  a  fraction  of  it  was  carried  to  completion. 
H  en  if  it  had  been  entirely  completed,  there  would 

Ktill  have  been  a  shortage  of  homes.     As  it  is.  the  famine  has 
>l>read  to  every  city  and  town  in  the  land,  and  it  i-  estin 


10  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

that  there  is  a  deficiency  below  actual  needs  of  about  2,000,000 
homes  in  the  country  today. 

The  causes  of  this  situation  are  evident.  First,  the  shifting 
of  population,  incident  to  the  industrial  reorganization  during 
the  War,  was  only  partly  temporary.  Our  shipyards  are  con- 
tinuing to  build  for  our  New  Merchant  Marine,  and  many 
munitions  plants  have  been  converted  into  peace-time  industrial 
plants.  A  permanent  increase  in  the  population  of  our  industrial 
cities  has  therefore  resulted. 

At  the  same  time,  the  construction  of  dwellings,  even  including 
the  Government  construction,  far  from  being  sufficient  to  meet 
this  abnormal  increase  in  demand,  did  not  even  keep  pace  with 
the  normal,  peace-time  increase  in  requirements,  and  in  fact, 
for  three  years,  was  practically  at  a  standstill. 

A  serious  deficit  therefore  exists,  as  is  evidenced  by  the  dis- 
tress of  home-seekers  in  all  parts  of  the  country,  by  the  countless 
industries  being  forced  into  the  housing  field,  and  by  the  nu- 
merous "housing  corporations"  being  organized  all  over  the 
land. 

Construction  Costs. — A  further  effect  of  the  War,  and  the 
financial  upheaval  accompanying  it,  has  been  the  great  increase 
of  construction  costs  above  all  previous  levels.  The  inflation 
of  currency  and  the  expansion  of  credit,  together  with  other 
influences  affecting  the  supply  of  and  the  demand  for  goods  and 
labor,  have  decreased  the  purchasing  power  of  the  dollar  to  a 
fraction  of  that  before  the  War.  Prices  have  thus  risen  to  a 
point  that  has  practically  destroyed  the  usefulness  of  all  past 
experience  in  construction  costs,  and  that  has  introduced  an 
element  of  uncertainty  which  tends  to  retard  all  influences  look- 
ing to  the  restoration  of  normal  supply  of  dwelling  houses. 

At  the  same  time,  the  lag  which  always  accompanies  changes 
in  price  levels,  and  the  unwillingness  of  tenants  to  pay  increased 
rents,  coupled  with  the  readiness  to  single  out  the  landlord  who 
increases  rents  as  a  "profiteer,"  have  combined  to  destroy  the 
incentive  to  private  builders  to  build,  while  making  financially 
more  difficult  the  carrying  out  of  housing  programs  by  industries 
and  housing  corporations. 

Governmental  Aid. — The  breakdown  of  the  usual  economic 
machinery  for  securing  the  construction  of  houses  had  led  to  an 
increasing  pressure  on  Governments,  both  here  and  abroad  to 
subsidize  house  construction  by  tax  exemption,  by  loans  at  low 


HISTORICAL  I: l  VII  H  I  1 

rate    of  interest,  and  in  other  ways.     In  tlii-  country,  "home 
loan  bank"  legislation  haw  been  introduced  and  strongly  ui 
upon  Congn  Both  in  G  Britain  and  in  Canada,  funds 

have  been  provided  and  loans  for  the  construction  of  low  priced 
houses  have  been  aut  horized. 

THE  PRESENT  PROBLEM 

Ai  the  present  time,  therefore,  ili«'  industrial  housing  problem 
promises  to  reach  its  full  developmenl .  A  general,  acute  Bhoi 
of  li(.mr<,  and  the  price  situation,  have  made  impossible  tne 
solution  of  the  probU'm  \>\  individual  action,  and  have  made 
large  scale  house  production  by  specialized  agents]  nbl  only 
desirable,  but  absolutely  necessarj  . 

c  of  experience  has  evinced  the  value  to  industry  of  a 
supply  of  homes  qoI  only  sufficient  in  quantity  bul  satisfactory 
in  quality.  The  beneficent  eflfeel  thereof  on  the  stability,  con- 
tentment  and  loyalty  of  labor  is  well  known. 

In  solving  these  problems,  the  incomes,  habits  and  desires 
of  the  employees;  the  requirements  of  the  industry  and  the 
interests  of  the  community  and  the  Btate  all  must  be  taken  into 
account.  Subsidy  by  industry,  philanthropy,  or  by  the  Govern- 
ment may  possibly  be  helpful  agencies,  but  in  any  case  industry 
vitally  interested,  it  must  achieve  Borne  successful  solution 
in  order  to  attract  and  keep  suitable  labor.  The  numerous 
experiments  that  have  been  made,  and  the  experience  during 
i  •  •  War,  have  demonstrated  that  in  order  to  fulfill  these  require- 
ments, full  consideration  musl  1"'  given  to  the  health,  comfort, 
convenience  and  amenity,  and  finances  of  the  prospective 
occupants. 

The  present  day  problem  of  industrial  housing,  therefore,   - 
organize    the    necessary    professional    services,— together    with 
the  employer,  the  employee,  the  municipality,  the  state  and  the 
natioi  to  secure  the  construction  of  homes  for  our  work- 

men, of  such  kind,  in  Buch  surroundings  and  on  such  terms  as  \\  ill 
promote  their  loyalty,  and  as  will  cultivate  an  industrial  spirit 
that  will  lead  to  the  increased  production  which  is  the 
need  of  our  country  and  of  tin-  world. 


CHAPTER  II 
FUNDAMENTAL     PRELIMINARY    CONSIDERATIONS 

Advantages  of  Modern  Industrial  Housing — Cost  of 
Modern  Industrial  Towns — Marginal  Deficit  or 
Necessity  For  Subsidy — Procedure  of  Organization 
and  Finance — Technical  Program 

Introduction. — The  industrial  housing  question  may  be  con- 
sidered to  have  two  phases;  one  in  connection  with  urban  indus- 
tries and  one  for  rural  industries.  By  far  the  greatest  number  of 
industries  have  been  established  in  existing  communities  and  the 
housing  of  workmen  in  such  circumstances  has  followed  channels 
which  have  been  largely  undirected  and  uncontrolled  by  the 
promoters  of  the  industry. 

Frequently,  in  connection  with  modern  plants,  correct  lighting, 
ventilation  and  sanitary  facilities  have  been  installed,  in  order  to 
maintain  efficiency  and  health  among  the  workers.  Thus 
working  conditions  within  the  plants  have  improved  constantly 
and  steadily,  while  housing  conditions  of  the  families  in  the 
adjoining  communities  have  been  forgotten  and  too  frequently 
have  grown  steadily  worse.  Private  enterprise  and  personal 
effort  have  failed  to  create  wholesome  or  adequate  homes  and 
living  conditions  for  workers  and  their  families;  large  concerns, 
therefore,  now  generally  realize  that  the  housing  of  employees 
must  be  considered  a  problem  of  industrial  development.  It 
cannot  be  evaded  or  solved  by  merely  establishing  the  industry 
within  an  existent  community.  It  is  incumbent  upon  the 
management  to  see  that  satisfactory  homes  are  available  for  the 
workmen,  if  not  by  independent  agencies,  then  by  the  assistance 
or  initiative  of  industrial  executives. 

In  the  second  classification,  the  industry  is  to  be  situated  in  a 
rural  or  isolated  section  and  hence  demands  the  creation  of  a 
new  community  with  all  of  its  multifarious  details.  It  has  some 
of  the  elements  of  the  foregoing  situation  but  in  many  features 
is  peculiar  to  itself. 

12 


II  NDAMENTAL  PRELIMINARY    CONSIDERATIONS        13 

Certain  ind  or  yean  have  boused  their  workmen  in 

isolated  "company  towns."  In  man}  cases  these  towns  have 
consisted  of  a  garish  group  of  houses,  withoul  adequate  sanitary, 
recreational  or  livable  facilities.  They  have  frequently  and 
deservedly  been  called  "camps."  To.  infuse  the  vital  breath  of 
111',.;  to  convert  patches  of  houses  into  a  community  of  homes; 
to  make  the  ft*1*1 p  u  town;  t  hi-  i.-  tin.-  sucond  phase  of  thejndus- 
uial  housing  problem. 

ADVANTAGES  OF  MODERN    INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Does  It  Pay. — No  new  enterprise  will  meril  favorable  re* 
nition  until  the  eminently  practical  and  sensible  question- 
it  pay? — is  given  consideration.     Whatarethei  andwhal 

are  the  returns  on  modern  industrial  housing? 

Unfortunately,  like  many  influences  dealing  with  human  be- 
ingBj  the  returns  from  whobsome  housing  cannol  be  accurately 
expressed  in  dollars  and  cents.  The  stresses  and  strains  of  hu- 
man nature  follow  no  exact  law,  as  do  those  in  concrete  and  steel. 
i-.-  returns  are  immeasurablej  however,  does  not  indicate 
thai  they  are  nol  real.  Favorable  influences  and  reactions 
resulting  from  good  housing  are  easily  discerned  by  those  who 
seek  them. 

Many  a  community  may  al  firsl  wonder  why,  accordu 
the  Fourteenth  Census,  it  takes  a  place  lower  in  the  rank  of 
populations  than  formerly  accorded  to  it.  As  a  result  there 
may  possibly  l>e  a  more  general  re  lization  of  the  discriminating 
elimination  by  labor  of  such  places  as  do  not  provide  comfortable 
and  convenient  homes,  plea-am  surroundings,  adequate  trans- 
portation, |  mi  a  Me  water,  ami  educational  and  recreative  facilities. 
and  why  labor,  therefore  avoids  unsatisfactory  living  conditions, 
insofar  ae  possible.     This  reaction  of  labor  to  environment  is 

none  the   less   real   1 ause  it    may    be  only  vaguely  felt  rather 

than  ronscioush   reasoned. 

Plant  and  Town  Compared. — An  illustration  of  the  need    of 
wholesome  living  conditions  maj   be  exhibited  by  a  comparison 

Of  the  number  Of  hour-  -pent    in  the  plant    by   the  worker-,  with 

the  number  of  hours  spent  in  the  community  by  the  family. 
Assuming  an  eight-hour  working  day  and  •'!<•<>  working  da} 

year,  it  can  be  Computed  that  the  in.lu-trial  worker  i-  in  the  plant 
only    L'7.1    per    cent,   of  hi-   time.      M  if  in   the  a\ 


14  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

family  of  five,  we  assume  that  l}i  members  are  engaged  at  the 
plant,  it  is  seen  that  only  8.2  per  cent,  of  the  entire  family's  time 
is  spent  in  the  plant.  The  remainder,  or  91.8  per  cent.,  is  spent 
under  influences  considered  under  the  subject  of  "Industrial 
Housing." 

To  the  average  man  the  most  interesting  and  important  con- 
sideration in  life  is  himself  and  his  immediate  family.  He  works 
for  a  wage  simply  that  he  may  be  enabled  to  obtain  the  neces- 
sities of  existence  and  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  life.  The  wage  it- 
self is  merely  the  medium  in  the  barter.  It  is  true  that  while 
the  workman  derives  his  all  important  livelihood  while  at  the 
plant,  the  expenditure  of  this  income  on  house  rent,  food,  clothes 
and  recreation  is  directly  affected  by  townsite  conditions.  And 
surely  the  conditions  under  which  the  income  is  expended  to 
obtain  the  necessities  and  pleasures  that  are  demanded  should  be 
as  carefully  considered  as  are  those  under  which  the  pay  is  ob- 
tained. While  the  plant  is  the  mean  of  livelihood,  the  home  and 
the^town  are  the  tangible  means~oT~  expressing  life;  whatever 
improves  living  conditions  reacts  upon  the  individual  as  potently 
as  do  improved  working  surroundings.  Labor  unrest  is  not  due 
entirely  to  lack  of  sufficient ^yrijutrin  many  cases  to  the  psy- 
chological effect  of  the  laborer's  family  upon  himself,  due  to  poor 
living  conditions. 

Labor  Turnover. — Wholesome  living  conditions  have  gen- 
erally been  highly  effective  as  an  aid  in  preventing  or  reducing 
labor  turnover,  with  its  enormous  costs.  The  recent  experiences 
of  our  war  industries  convincingly  proved  that  unsatisfactory 
and  inadequate  housing  was  one  of  the  principal  causes  of  the 
enormous  labor  turnover,  which  in  the  early  stages  of  the  work, 
so  interfered  with  their  productive  efficiency.  Even  unusually 
high  wages  failed  to  hold  the  workers,  and  as  a  consequence  the 
United  States  Government  was  forced  to  appropriate  $190,000, 
000  to  provide  good  houses  for  the  workers. 

Alexander,  in  1913,  found  no  fewer  than  five  distinct  elements  of 
cost  in  hiring  and  training  new  employees.  These  were: — cleri- 
cal work  in  connection  with  the  hiring  process;  instruction  of  new 
employees  by  foremen  and  assistants;  increased  wear  and  tear 
of  machinery  and  tools  by  new  employees;  reduced  rate  of  pro- 
duction during  early  period  of  employment;  increased  amount  of 
spoiled  work  by  new  employees. 


//   WDAMENTAL  PRELIMINARY    CONSIDERATIONS        1 ". 

The  same  in  studied 

emplo  i  hired  in  t  of  hiring 

a  m-w  man  was  bel  •  00. 

,  in  1914,  made  i 
aew  employees  were  hired  to  main  tail  00  :  i  j  :i t « -« 1 

the  cost  of  hiring  to  bi  er  man  en 

In  L918,  the  cost  of  bi  est  [mated  to 

Im-  fri  1 1 50)  by  the  ( rem  impany. 

The  I  ord  <  iompany, 
turnover  of   U6  per  cent.,  and  I  this  turnover  was 

said  to  b<  000. 

During  1916,  a  rubber  company  in  Ohio,  employing  16,000  men, 
found  thai  it  had  a  turnovi  r  i  f  31  md  thai  v 

cent,  of  these  were  single  men,  between  21  and  30  -    .  and 

mostly  Americans. 

[f  the  same  position  must  be  refilled  three  times  in  one  year 

n<>t   .-Hi  unusual  turnover    at   the  < 240  per  year, 

these  changes  would  constitute  a  loss  licit  would  pay  the  int< 
on  an  investment  <>!'  ■  t,000,  a  sum  which  would  go  far  toward 
supplying  a  satisfactory  house. 

Regulated  Payrolls.  -A  modern  industrial  town,  planned  in 
proper  relation  with  the  plant,  permits  a  conscious  control  over 
the  selection  of  the  ■  :  employees,  impossible  of  attain- 

ment when  the  town  is  uot  "buill  to  order."     industrial  n 
:m<l   foremen   know  only   !<><>  well  that   tin-  percentag 
pnarried  i<>  single  rn<  n  carried  on  the  payroll  js  often  affected  by 
the,  casual  a\  ir  houses  in  the  neighborhood. 

The  correct    percentage   can   be   maintained   by  providing   the 
right  proportion  of  houses  and  rooms. 

I     :ewise  tTie   penvi  skilled   to  unskilled   workers;  the 

to  native  workers,  the  aumber  of  women 
workers  and  minors  can  be  regulated  to  produce  maxim  un 
ciency,  by   building   tlie  tmvn  to  suit   tin-  plant.     The  modern 
industrial  town  has  all  the  ad^  of  the  home  built 

compared  with  ili<-  house  purchased  ready  built.     This 
9<  rikinglj  show  n  l>y  an  example  given  in  <  'hap' 
where  the  method  of  computing  the  Dumber  and  i\  ouses 

and  rooi  cusse  I. 

Loyalty  and  Efficiency.  The  value  of  long  service  <>ii  the  part 
of  employees  i-  only   partly   i  ted  by   the  I 

of  labor  i  urno>  er.     The  skill  I  loy- 


16  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

alty  that  accompany  long  steady  service-are  of  inestimable  value 
to  the  industry. 

The  contentment  that  results  from  wholesome  living  condi- 
tions goes  far  toward  producing  plant  efficiency,  and  in  promoting 
that  esprit  de  corps  which  is  so  indispensable  to  any  properly 
functioning  organization.  No  matter  how  well  organized  the 
industry  or  how  modern  the  equipment,  successful  operation  de- 
pends largely  on  the  attitude  of  mind  of  the  invididual  worker. 
An  ounce  of  loyalty  is  worth  a  ton  of  time  clocks^ 

Bad  living  conditions  have  their  greatest  effect  on  the  work- 
man's family;  but  the  discontent,  ill  health,  and  irritability  of 
his  family  surely  react  upon  the  wage  earner  himself,  who  gene- 
rally thus  becomes  thoroughly  infected  with  dissatisfaction,  and 
frequently  resentful  at  the  entire  environment  which  caused  it, 
and  no  workman  in  such  a  frame  of  mind  can  really  be  an  effec- 
tive producer  or  an  harmonious  part  of  the  organization.  Many 
a  disagreement  culminating  at  the  plant  had  its  origin  and 
nurture  in  the  unsatisfactory  living  conditions  outside  of  the 
plant. 

Health. — Clean  and  comfortable  living  quarters  unquestion- 
ably conserve  the  health  of  the  worker.  Pure  water,  efficient 
sewerage,  means  for  maintaining  clean  streets  and  premises,  and 
hygienic  houses  are  essential.  A  cheerful,  healthy,  virile  and  effi- 
cient community  will  not  develop  out  of  the  filth  and  disease  of 
an  insanitary  environment. 

Modern  Practice  and  Aims. — Aside  from  the  above  elements, 
what  more  practical  evidence  is  needed  than  the  fact  that  our 
largest  and  most  successful  business  concerns  are  investing  large 
sums  of  money  in  modern  industrial  housing;  though  the  return 
on  such  invested  capital  cannot  be  segregated  and  expressed  in 
dollars  and  cents. 

Big  business  has  given  birth  to  big  conceptions  as  to  the  pur- 
pose and  province  of  large  industrial  enterprises.  Its  service 
concept,  as  well  as  its  role  as  an  instrument  of  profit,  is  now  re- 
cognized as  a  worth-while  motive  for  large  corporate  under- 
takings. 

COST  OF  MODERN  INDUSTRIAL  TOWNS 

Elements  Considered.— Though  the  returns  on  good  housing 
are  indefinite,  the  estimated  investment  can  be  expressed  in  dol- 
lars  and    cents.      Every   industrial  executive   should   know   the 


//   VDAMENTAL  PRELIMIS  Iff]    CONSIDERATIONS        17 

approximate  outlay  required  to  gauge  intelligently  the  wisdom 
of  the  expendil  lire. 

A  modern  industrial  townsite  is  more  than  a  group  of  houses; 
a  vital,  breathing  community  of  homes.  Tin-  physical 
elements  contributing  to  Buch  a  community  are  the  land;  the 
houses;  the  buildings  other  than  houses,  a£  quarters  for  Bingle 
men,  Bchools,  Btores,  clubs,  churches,  etc.;  the  utilities,  Buch  as 
water  supply,  Bewerage,  drain  •     electrical  and  transporta- 

tion systems;  the  Btreet  improvements;  and,  finally,  tin-  parks, 
playgrounds  and  reserval  ions. 

Figures  relative  to  the  <•"-'  of  these  various  items  are  of  limited 
value  without  full  information  concerning  the  given  project. 
To  afford  an  approximate  conception,  however,  estimates  for 
Beveral  modern  towns  are  given  in  the  following  paj 

Hypothetical  Example.  The  author  recently  (1920  computed 
the  cos!  of  an  hypothetical  town  in  which  the  following  conditions 
were  assumed: 

A  site  of  approximately  130  acres,  with  flat  topography  in  the 
vicinity  of  but  no!  immediately  adjacen!  to  a  city:  1000  detached 
houses,  22  ft.  wide  and  26  ft.  deep;  lots,  12  ft.  fron!  by  LOO  ft. 
deep,  with  1")  ft .  of  set-back.  Main  streets,  50  ft.  wide,  improved 
with  26  ft.  wide,  water-bound,  macadam  roadway,with  concrete 
curbs,  :i  ti-ft.  planting  strip,  and  a  I'-j-ft.  concrete  sidewalk  on 
each  side  <>t'  tin-  -tint.     Minor  Btreets,  l<>  ft.  wide,  with  i- 

r-bound,  macadam  roadway,  furnished  with  concrete  curbs, 
."> •  _» - f t .  planting  strip  and  ;i  1-ft.  concrete  sidewalk  on  each  side 
of  the  street.  Gridiron  street  systems,  with  no  alleys.  Length 
of  each  block,  588  ft.,  width  200  ft.,  with  28  houses  in  each 
block. 

\   filtration   plant   and  pumping  station   were  assumed,   two 
mile-  distanl   from  the  townsite;  a  sewage  disposal  plant  lot 
one  niilr  away;  an  electric  transmission  line  two  milt-  Long,  ami  a 
•link  feeder  one  and  one-half  miles  long,  each  considered  t<> 
derive  it-  Bupprj  from  an  existing  plant. 

With  this  assumed  town  Bite  ami  using  unit  prices  current  in 
January,  L920,  the  following  relative  costs  of  house  ami  improve- 
ments per  house  were  computed.  The  cos!  of  Land  was  arbitra- 
rily fixed  •  -<i-  ft.;  and  the  house  itself,  suitable 
for  a  Bemi-unskilled  worker,  was  assumed  to  1><-  built  U 

The  itemized  est im  I  in'  he  follov 

table,  together  wit h  the  |  h  item. 


18 


/  A  I)  [  *,S  TBI  A  L  HO  USING 


Table  1. — Estimated  Cost  of  Improved  House  and  Lot  in  an  Hypothe- 

thetical  Town 


Xos.                                    Items 

Cost  per  house 
and  lot 

Per  cent,  of 
total 
cost 

Per  cent, 
including 
overhead 

1.  House  (average  cost) 

2.  Land  in  lot 

3.  Land  in  streets 

4.  Lot  improvements 

03,500.00 

105 . 00 

35.18 

264.71 

308 . 27 

149.44 

19.31 

74.67 

162 . 96 

125 . 60 

63.4 
1.9 
0.6 
4.7 
5.6 
2.7 
0.3 
1.3 
3.0 
2.2 

8.6 
5.7 

73.7 
2.2 
0.7 
5.6 
6.5 

6.  Water  supply  and  distribution .  . 

7.  Electrical  lines  and  lighting .... 

8.  Gas  supply  and  distribution .... 

9.  Sewers  (storm  and  sanitary) .... 
10     House  connections 

3.2 
0.4 
1.6 
3.5 
2.6 

11.  Supervision  and  engineering,  @ 

10  per  cent 

12.  Interest  during  construction,  @ 

$4,745.14 
474 . 51 
313.18 

$5,532.83 

100.0 

100.0 

Summarizing  the  foregoing,  it  will  be  noted  that  the  house 
is  78.5  per  cent,  of  the  total  cost,  including  a  distribution  of 
overhead;  land  with  lot  improvements  is  8.3  per  cent.;  street 
improvements,  with  land  for  these,  are  7.7  per  cent.;  water, 
electrical,  gas  and  sewer  improvements  with  house  connections 
constitute  11.5  per  cent.;  engineering,  supervision  and  interest 
charges,  which  are  distributed  in  these  statements,  are  14.3  per 
cent,  of  the  whole. 

The  foregoing  estimated  total  cost  of  $5,532.83  is  to  be  con- 
sidered the  gross  cost  of  land  and  all  improvements.  The  net 
cost  will  depend  on  local  conditions  and  may  be  arrived  at,  by- 
deducting  from  the  gross,  such  costs  as  are  borne  by  public 
utility  companies  and  paid  for  in  rates  or  assumed  by  munici- 
palities and  paid  for  by  them  out  of  general  taxation.  Local 
custom  is  this  regard  differs;  generally  public  utility  companies 
are  required  to  extend  service,  providing  the  return  warrants; 
municipalities  frequently  pay  for  the  entire  water  supply  and  dis- 
tribution s  stem,  for  sewer  outfalls,  approximately  ten  percent. 
of  sower  and  storm  drains;  from  10  to  15  per  cent,  of  cost  of 
pavements,  and  the  entire  cost  of  sewage  disposal  plants. 


FUNDAMEh  TAL  PRELIMINARY  CONSIDERATIONS 


LO 


Another  Example.  The  author,  during  L919,  planned  a  new- 
semi-industria]  town  in  Eastern  Pennsylvania.  The  Bite,  with 
Blightly  sloping  topography,  contained  LOO  acres,  and  was  divided 
into  263   lots  and   four  Industrial   sites.     The  principal  streets 

were  50  ft.  wide;  minor  sheets,  !()  ft.  wide  The  lots  varied  in 
wi.Ii  h  from  H»  to  50  H  .,  wit  h  an  average  depl  h  of  150  ft.;  average 
area  of  lots  aboul  0.000  sq.  ft.  The  lengths  of  the  blocks  were 
about  600  ft.     Alleys  were  omit  ted.     Electrical  and  gas  utilities 

were  not    included. 


Table  2. — Cost  of  House,  Land  \\i>  I'tiutiks 
(Number  designation  is  the  same  as  in  Table  1). 


No8.   [terns 


Basis  of  estimate 


i       Per  cent, 
house  of 

;iiid  lot  total 

cos! 


1.  Eouse 

2.  Land 


5.  Street  grading 

.").  Si  reel  paving 

5.  Sidewalks  .  .  . 


6.  Water  works 


9.  Sanitary  sew- 
er system 

9.  Storm  sewers 


11. 


12 


Werage  for   medium  paid  workers. 

Based  <>n  cosl  plus  carrying  charges 

for  three  years;  no  improvements.  . 

Based  on  cost  of  excavation  and  fil- 
ling to  sub-grade 

Based  on  tar-bound  macadam    

Based  on  concrete  walk  4  '-i  feet 
a\  erage  width,  on  both  sides  of 
si  reet 

Based  on  wells,  pumping  station, 
e|c\  ated  steel  storage  tank,  and  1, 
(i  and  8-inch  cast  iron  pipe  distribu- 
iilt  ion  system 

Based  on  8-inch  tile  pipe,  at  depl  b  of 
9  feet,  with  manholes,  and  sewage 
disposal  works 

Based  on  15-inch  tile  pipe,  with  :> 
feet  cover,  discharge  at  edge  of 
town 


$4,000 


'.10 


90 
210 


100 


170 


150 


60 


Sub-total S4,S70 

Supervision  and  engineering,   ("    to 
per  cent 487 


Sub-total $5,351 

Interest  during  construction.  ("   6  per 

cent 32] 


Total 


J5.768 


70.0 

1.6 

1.6 
3.7 

1.7 
3.0 


2.6 
1.1 


8.6 


5.7 


100  no 


20 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


Average  of  U.  S.  Housing  Corporation. — The  following  table 
presents  a  summary  of  the  estimated  costs  per  family  for  97 
housing  projects  planned  by  the  United  States  Housing  Corpora- 
tion during  1917-1918.  Only  22  of  these  were  built.  These  97 
projects  included  accommodations  for  21,005  families,  and  were 
situated  all  over  the  United  States,  most  of  these  being  east  of 
the  Mississippi  River.  As  a  general  rule,  the  houses  were 
designed  for  the  higher  paid  skilled  workers.  The  layouts  include 
detached,  semi-detached,  terrace  or  row,  and  apartment  houses. 


Table  3.     Cost  of  Housing  per  Family  Average  97  Projects — U.  S. 

Housing  Corporation 
(Number  Designation  same  as  used  in  Table  1.     Based  on  Assumed  Unit 

Costs) 


Xos. 


Iter 


Cost -per 
family 


Per  cent,  of 
total 
cost 


1  House 

\-a        Other  buildings 

2  &  3     Land 

4  Lot  improvements 

5  &  10  General  improvements. 


$4,374.70 
185.85 
192.14 
147 .  80 
497 . 62 


Total $5,398.11 


81.0 
3.4 
3.6 

2.8 
9.2 

100.0 


(The  above  figures  were  obtained  from  Page  434,  Vol.  2,  of  the  Report  of 
the  United  States  Housing  Corporation  published  June  21,  1919.) 


Lorain,  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation.— A  typical  example  of 
the  industrial  housing  developments  built  by  the  Emergency 
Fleet  Corporation,  Division  of  Passenger  Transportation  and 
Housing,  is  given  in  the  following  table,  which  presents  the 
approximate  itemized  cost  of  the  village  of  the  American  Ship- 
building Company,  completed  in  1919  at  Lorain,  Ohio. 

The  total  area  of  the  project  was  43.8  acres;  it  contained 
133  detached  houses,  44  semi-detached  houses,  2  apartment 
houses  and  2  stores.  All  were  of  frame  construction.  While  the 
village  was  built  within  the  municipal  limits  of  the  City  of  Lorain, 
it  included  a  complete' layout  of  streets,  all  lateral  and  distrib- 
uting utility  lines,  but  no  feeders,  trunks  or  main  transmission 
lines. 


Ii   VDAMENTAL  PRELIMINAR]    CONSIDERATIONS       21 

I    Mill.    I  AtPPBOXI  \1  \  I  1      '  li  \Ml.llli  AN' 

Shipbuilding  Company,  Lobain,  Ohio. 


I  House 

Land 
:>  eel  improvements 

'.  \\  iter  supply  : i r  1  •  t  distribute 

Q         Sew  era    Banitary  and  storm 
3  ( leneral  improvements 


-S.I   I   I  K»H     II 


1  The  mi  cos)  i-  somewhal  less,  owing  t<>  paymenl  by  the  municipality  for 
it>  iicirmiil  Bhare  of  municipal  improvements. 

MARGINAL  DEFICIT  OR  NECESSITY  FOR  SUBSIDY 

Statement  of  Requirements.  A  consideration  of  elements 
affecting  the  oosl  of  a  modem  industrial  town  at  once  presents 
the  concrete  question  Wh.it  conjjliiiites  a.  house?  The  mater- 
ials of  construction;  the  oumber  and  Bjze  of  the  comas;  tin* 
number  of  families  under  one  roof  and  finally  the  exteni  of  the 
improvements  and  conveniences  pmvirlftd  to  guarantee  health 
and  comfort ;  all  of  t  hese  affect  t  he  cost . 

In  Chapter  X  there  are  given  various  views  upon  the  features 
ami  requirements  of  a  satisfactory  house,  expressed  by  men  who 
have  devoted  much  time  and  thought  to  the  subject.  It  is 
perhaps  only  natural  that  there  should  be  a  wide  divergen 
opinion  upon  such  a  topic,  since,  in  common  with  most  other 
typically  human  questions,  it  is  incapable  of  exact  computation. 

However,  do  doubt  .-ill  will  agree  th&l  the  house  should  be 
Bjichas  to  coj  Jtlif  safety  and  welfare  of  its  occupants. 

The  features  making  for  the  t  wo  former  objects  are  distinctively 
technical,  capable  of  more  or  less  exact  analysis  in  thepn 
state  of  the  art,  and  therefore  are  relatively  easy  of  specification. 
It  i-  concerning  the  question  of  welfare  that  the  greatest  differ- 
ence of  opinion  occurs.     Included  in  such  desideratum  arc  the 
more  obscure  factors  in  home  production,  such  as  attractive 
amenities,  comfort,  provision  for  amusement  and  helpful  Bocial 
intercourse,  and  constructive  or  preventative  measures,  both  in 
house  construction   and   in   town   building,   making  for  b 
moral  standards  of  living.     While   the   - 


22 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


various  items  will  no  doubt  depend  upon  the  comprehension  or 
bias  of  the  judge,  such  have,  at  least  to  a  reasonable  degree,  a 
direct  bearing  upon  health,  and  consequently  may  be  considered 
in  the  class  of  the  necessities. 

It  is  a  comparatively  simple  task  to  talk  about  what  should  and 
what  should  not  be  considered  essential  and  desirable  features  of  a 
workman's  house.  A  more  difficult  task  is  to  devise  ways  and 
means  whereby  these  features  may  be  obtained  and  still  keep 
the  house  within  the  rent  and  purchase  price  that  can  be  afforded 
by  the  occupant.  Before  reaching  any  final  conclusions  on  the 
necessary  and  desirable  features  of  a  workman's  house,  one  should 
investigate,  as  a  basic  starting  point,  the  question — What  can 
the  workman  afford  to  pay  for  rent? — assuming  that  it  is  neces- 
sary for  the  house  with  its  improvements  to  yield  a  reasonable 
return  on  the  investment. 

Income  Available  for  Rent. — The  United  States  Department 
of  Labor  made  investigations  on  the  cost  of  living  in  the  United 
States,  from  July  31,  1918,  to  February  28,  1919,  and  reported 
these  results  in  detail  in  the  Monthly  Labor  Review,  for  the 
months  of  May,  June  and  July,  1919,  in  Volumes  7,  8  and  9. 
Nearly  thirteen  thousand  family  schedules  were  obtained  in 
92  localities,  in  the  different  geographical  sections  of  the  country, 
for  family  incomes  ranging  from  less  than  $900.00  to  $2,100.00 
and  more.  The  information  thus  secured  was  by  personal  inter- 
view, and  in  many  instances  by  a  review  of  daily  expense  accounts, 
which  many  housewives  were  prevailed  upon  to  keep  over  a 
period  of  not  less  than  five  weeks.  The  expenditures  were 
subdivided  into — food;  clothing;  rent;  fuel  and  light;  furniture; 
miscellaneous  expenditures  and  surplus. 

The  following  table,  showing  only  the  percentage  of  income 
spent  on  rent,  was  prepared  from  the  statistics  given  in  the  re- 
ports mentioned  above. 

Table   5. — Per   Cent,   of  Income   Spent   on   Rent    (1918-1919)  From 
Monthly  Labor  Review — Volumes  7,  8  and  9. 


Annual  income 

Under 

$900 

$900 

to 
$1,200 

$1,200 

to 
$1,500 

$1,500 

to 
$1,800 

S1.S00 

to 
$2,100 

$2,100 

and 
over 

Per  cent,  spent  on  rent .  . 
Number  of  families  in- 
vestigated   

19^4 

488 

13.65 
2769 

13.12 
4152 

12.64 

2751 

12.52 
1622 

10.36 
1062 

/  I   SDA  Ml.  \  TAL  VltELl  MINAPA    (  ON,  IDERA  TW 

The  average  percentage  of  income  paid  i 

■nt.,  while  75  per  cent.  <»f  thi  mily  im< >m«-  was 

from  the  earnings  o?  tEe  principal  breadwinner.     Thei 
obtain  the  approximate  percen  the  principal  breadwinner's 

wage  that  may  be  available  f<>r  rent,  the  figure  directly  conni 
wi'.li  the  v\:i^i  aid  I"-  18.2  per  cent. 

1  rge  industriea  have  found  by  actual  experience  that 

when  hou  jold  to  the  workers,  a  larger  proportion  of  the 

income  is  available  for  the  purch  te  house  than  for 

the  rental  of  the  house.     This  i  I  do  <li>ul>i  by  the 

extra  frugality  stimulated  by  the  desire  for  home  ownership. 
<  Mm-  large  industry  recently  developed  its  housing  project  <>n  the 
that   17  per  cent,  of  the  wort  rould  be  available 

for  houses  Wi- 1 l:iic«I  for  rental  purposes,  whereas  25  per  cent,  could 
be  dej  <-iii|i-iI  upon  foi  i«li  were  fo  Be  sold. 


genera]  purposes,  howeve^20  per  cent,  of  the  wage  income  i-  a 
fair  figure  to  use  in  estimating  the  amount  of  wage  availabli 

With  the  percentage  ot  wage  available  for  rent,  and  knowing 
the  wage  rate;  the  amount  of  money  that  can  be  invested  in  a 
house  and  appurtenances  that  could  be  self-financed  is  readily 
computed.  It  immediately  becomes  apparent  that  forthelo 
priced  wage  earner  this  amount  is  insufficient  to  build  a  - 
factory  house  with  the  presenl  day  cost  of  land,  building  materials 
and  labor.     A  marginal  deficit  exis 

V  this  point  we  arc  brought  \:i>-t-  to  face  with  the  mosl  diffi- 
cult feature  of  the  industrial  housing  problem.  Stripping  it  <<\ 
its  Don-essentials,  the  problem  is  exemplified  by  the  following 
three  financial  statements: 

1.  With  its  minimum  requirements,  a  detached  five-roon 

u nli  proper  yard  room  and  air  Bpace  and  with  all  appurtenj 
cannot  be  built  in  most  part-  of  the  Unit     3  -  than 

2.  With  a    lo  per  cent,  return  on  the 
maintenance  and  depreciaton,  this  house  mu 
month. 

8.  Wit!  at.  of  tin-  woi  I 

require  1210  per  month,  oi  v  a  un- 

skilled worker. 

Means  to  Meet  Deficit.     The  resources  to  meet  thet 
are 


24  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

1.  To  increase  the  wages  or  income  of  the  family. 

2.  To  subsidize  the  cost  of  the  house,  either  in  capital,  account,  or 
by  accepting  less  than  the  legal  rate  of  interest  in  return. 

3.  To  reduce  the  cost  of  the  house  by  quantity  production,  by  group- 
ing and  by  intensified  development,  such  as  the  use  of  row  houses  or 
other  type  of  multiple  family  dwellings. 

All  three  are  questions  of  inter-related  expenditures.  The 
first  two  are  matters  of  company  policy  and  bookkeeping.  The 
last  is  a  question  of  judicious  town  building,  savings  in  which 
can  be  achieved  only  by  the  careful,  experienced,  economical 
consideration  of  the  design,  construction  and  maintenance  of  the 
industrial  town. 

It  should  clearly  be  understood  that  the  foregoing  is  based  on 
renting  a  detached  house  to  the  lower  paid  wage  earners.  If  a 
selling  plan  is  adopted,  then  about  25  per  cent,  of  the  worker's 
income  may  safely  be  assumed  to  be  available  for  reduction  of 
principle,  interest  and  ordinary  maintenance  of  the  house.  In 
this  case,  the  proposed  five-room,  minimum  house  could  be  pur- 
chased by  a  breadwinner,  making  about  $6.50  per  day.  Impor- 
tant progress  toward  a  solution  of  the  difficulty  may  be  gained  by 
the  use  of  row  or  terrace  houses,  duplex  and  other  multiple  family 
dwellings,  or  of  the  older,  partly  depreciated  houses  which  have 
been  vacated  by  a  more  productive  worker;  upon  the  basis  that 
the  needs  of  the  minimum  wage  earning  class  may  be  satisfied 
by  the  minimum  space  allotments  dictated  by  sanitation  and 
hygiene.  Such  dwellings,  although  requiring  a  high  order  of 
designing  skill,  not  only  reduce  building  costs,  but  conserve  land 
and  lessen  the  cost  of  utilties  per  family  unit. 

The  gravity  of  the  financial  problem  presented  by  industrial 
housing  has  caused  it  to  assume  transcendent  importance  in  the 
program  of  industrial  developments.  Once  considered  a  side 
issue,  it  is  now  in  the  fore-front  of  the  important  questions, 
moulding  the  policies  and  procedures  of  industrial  expansion. 
The  new  attitude,  essential  to  an  economical  procedure  and  now 
fully  realized,  allows  town  builders  wider  latitude  and  affords 
greater  opportunities  for  successfully  solving  the  problem  than 
ever  before.  Often  decided  advantages  may  be  obtained  for 
the  town  with  no  consequent  disadvantage  to  the  plant,  if 
final  policies  regarding  the  plant  location  are  formulated  only 
after  townsite  possibilities  are  carefully  investigated  and 
considered. 


PUNDAMBNTA1    PRELIMINARY    CONSIDERATIONS 

PROCEDURE  OF  ORGANIZATION  AND  FINANCE 

Policy  as  to  Home  Ownership.  The  policy  of  ownership  and 
town  control  is  one  of  the  moel  far-reaching  considerations  which 
MllM  be  faced  in  the  development  of  a  modern  industrial  town, 
affecting  as  il  does  the  entire  scheme  of  financing,  the  selection 
of  the  Bite,  the  design  of  the  houses,  the  order  of  the  construc- 
tion program,  and  the  administration  of  the  town.  Three  dis- 
tincl  systems  are  practised  in  industrial  towns,  the  third  being 
a  compromise  of  the  other  two. 

In  one  a  company,  either  the  manufacturing  concern  or  a 
special  charter  organization  subsidiary  thereto,  maintains  <\- 
clusive  ownership  of  the  houses  and  improvements. 

1,,  the  second,  the  ownership  of  thehoua  intothe  j 

npn  of  the  workers,  with  or  without  the  financial  assistance 
of  the  company  by  some  cooperative  Bales  arrangement. 

In  the  third  Bystem  the  houses  are  owned  cooperativejy  by 
,1„.  tenanj  and  landlord  through  the  medium  of  :.  copartner- 
ship, or,  more  commonly,  a  corporation. 

Company-owned    Houses.— This    is    distinctively    9 
arrangement.     Under  it.  the.  housea  are  financed,  built,  owned, 
maintained  and  operated  whoUy  l>y  the  company,  and  out 
appropriations  from  company  funds,  together  with  Buch  asf 
,alll,.  j^  ,,m  be.  gained  from  the  rentals.     Ordinarily,  when 
large  amount  of  unskilled  labor  is  involved,  the  development  can- 
not be  financed  entirely  from  these  rentals. 

.(I„i  if  the  housing  development  be  a  separate  com- 
munity, the  entire  scheme  of  operation,  including  policing,  health 
regulations,  fighting,  fire  protection,  etc.  must  remain  the 
burden  of  the  company.  En  order  to  escape  Borne  oi  thes 
Bponsibilities,  as  well  as  in  order  to  conform  to  a  more  democratic 
.vernment,  it  has  been  customary  to  incorporate  Buch  company 
towns  and  to  adininister  operation  by  a  regularly  constituted 
public  government. 

In  this  Bystem  the  selection  of  the  type  or  Bites  and  the  dev< 
menl    thereof,   is  not   affected  materially  by  the  Baleabilil 
the  houses.     M     •       -  of  construction  and  general  design  ol  the 
house  Bhould  be  such  as  to  reduce  maintenance  and  operation 
plusthefixedcl  toaniinimum.     The  irresponsibility 

,.  character  of  interior  finish  and  fixl 
The  changeability  of  tenants  calls  for  designs  and  improvements 
acceptable  to  general,  rather  than  to  individual  tai 


26  IX  DC  ST  RIM,  HOUSING 

The  organization  can  control  directly  the  designs  and  stages 
of  construction  throughout  the  development,  utilizing  therefore 
an  efficient  town  building  organization,  whereby  all  the  advan- 
tages of  quantity  and  standardized  production  methods  may  be 
realized.  The  system  affords  freedom  and  easy  mobility  to  the 
workers. 

Privately  Owned  Houses. — By  this  sytem,  while  the  company 
or  an  entirely  separate  corporation  bears  the  financial  burden  of 
initiating  the  project,  it  is  eventually  reimbursed  by  the  sale 
price  of  the  house  paid  in  installments  extending  over  a  period 
of  years.  The  maintenance,  taxes,  and  assessments  become  the 
burden  of  the  owner  upon  receiving  title  to  the  property. 

The  selection  of  site  in  connection  with  this  class  of  house 
ownership  is  affected  by  the  saleability  of  houses.  More  money 
as  a  rule  can  be  invested  in  the  single  "houses  under  this  system, 
as  the  buyers  will  devote  a  higher  percentage  of  their  wages  to 
the  purchase  of  a  house  than  to  the  rental  of  one.  Individual, 
rather  than  group  tastes  must  be  catered  to,  in  order  to  improve 
the  selling  value,  a  requirement  which  generally  results  in  a  more 
liveable  home.  The  prospective  purchaser  is  generally  allowed 
some  latitude  in  choice  of  location,  and  in  the  choice  of  one  from 
among  several  standard  types  and  sizes  of  house.  Some  organi- 
zations permit  the  purchaser  to  select  an  original  design  for 
his  house.  Occasionally  the  lot  is  simply  purchased  from  the 
company  and  the  purchaser  employs  his  own  architect  and  con- 
tractor. Either  of  these  latter  two  methods  of  operation  tends 
to  reduce  the  savings  which  results  from  standardization  and 
quantity  production  methods. 

The  development  of  the  townsite  may  be  placed  in  the  hands 
of  an  independent  realty  company  or  privately  formed  housing 
company.  In  this  case  certain  restrictions  should  be  enforced 
to  prevent  building  speculation  which  will  work  a  hardship  upon 
the  workers.  This  plan  has  the  distinctive  advantage  of  avoiding 
paternalism,  with  all  of  its  attendant  evils.  It  removes  a  large 
share  of  the  expense  and  burden  of  overhead  from  the  company, 
and,  by  reason  of  its  democratic  and  fundamentally  sound  econo- 
mics, has  a  tonic  effect  upon  the  entire  community  which  it 
fosters. 

Where  a  company  assumes  the  dual  role  of  employer  and  of 
landlord  or  real  estate  agent,  it  has  generally  been  found  that 
the  worker,  unable  or  unwilling  to  give  fine  discrimination,  takes 


//   VDAMENTAL  PRELIMINAR]  >i.l:\il<>\-        27 

advantage  of  the  rather  complex  situation,  by  balancing 
vancee  as  an  employee  againsl  demands  ae  a  purchaser  or  tenant 
(or  vice  ad  will  thus  insist  on  far  1 1 1« » r< -  than  his  just  due. 

Indeed,  there  are  numerous  instances  where  'In-  company  has 
had  to  maintain  and  repair  houses  for  ;  er  they  I 

sold  and  paid  for.     No  matter  what  good  intentions  both  parties 
have,  differences  frequently  arise  in  the  process  of  build ii 
paying  for  the  house  which,  with  company  control,  ma 
permanently  discontented  worker. 

The  construction  program,  in  connection  with  a  non-company 
o\  ned  townsite,  however,  may  and  often  does  follow  the  same 
course  as  with  company  controlled  town-,  the  Bales  policy  being 
initiated  at  the  completion  of  the  first  house. 

Cooperatively  Owned  Houses.  <  ^operative  house  ownership 
is  the  result  of  an  endeavor  to  solve  the  housing  problem,  avoid 
landlordism  and  paternalism  and  share  the  burdens  and  tx  ■ 
of  ;i  house  renting  business  by  providing  Bexvice-at-cost  living 
quarters  to  the  members  of  the  organization  The  idea  has  had 
its  fullesl  development  in  England,  although  some  example* 
to  be  found  in  thi>  conn!  py. 

This  (vpfi  of  organization  conducts  a  strictly  renting  busii 
it  may  and  often  doc-  operate  partially  on  borrowed  c.,; 
giving  mortg; ■■..  cunt y.      1  he  system  is  particularly  app 

ble  to  Bmall  housing  developments  where  apartment  or  multiple 
family  houses  predominate,  and.  in  fact   it   loses    much  ol 
advantage    where    detached    houses   are    the    rule.     The    more 
important  technical  considerations  are  similar  to  th<  ribed 

for  "  (  'otnpativ  owned   1  louses.  " 

When  applied  in  industrial  housing,  the   industry  generally 
hold-  the  majority  of  the  stock  and  receives  therefor  divid< 
in  the  form  of  rentals.     It   has  the  advantage  of  relit 
industry  of  a  considerable  part   of  the  burden  of  fin 
operation,   holds   a   somewhat    better  pron  returning 

adequate  rate  of  interest,  and  in  addition  it.  has  son 
advantage  in  promoting  a  more  wholesome  independei 
self-reliance  among  the  tenant-  than   in  the  i  ompany- 

ow  ncd  houst 

Forms  of  Building  Organizations.       Bu  nisation 

is  here  taken  to  mean  that  financial  agency  which  initiates  and  i< 
•onsible  for  the  construction  of  the  housii  . 

The  Bchemee  and  *  that  ha 


28  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

to  finance  and  promote  real  estate  housing  developments  are 
manifold  as  to  details  of  execution  and  operation.  However, 
for  the  purposes  of  industrial  housing,  they  are  represented  by 
not  over  three  fundamental  types. 

Loan  and  Realty  Associations. — This  form  of  organization 
loans  money  to  individuals  for  building  purposes  or  for  the 
purchase  of  land  only,  up  to  a  specified  percentage  of  the  total 
value  of  the  property  either  unimproved,  improved,  or  about  to 
be  improved,  taking  as  security  therefor  either  first  or  second 
mortgages,  or  both. 

The  more  usual  procedure  begins  with  a  borrower  who  has  his 
land  paid  for  and  who  desires  to  erect  a  dwelling  thereon.  In  this 
case  the  borrower  would  obtain  a  loan  from  a  bank,  or  from  an 
ordinary  building  and  loan  association,  secured  by  a  first  mortgage 
on  his  property.  The  realty  corporation  would  then  make  the  borr- 
ower a  loan  upon  his  second  mortgage,  for  the  difference  between  the 
cost  of  the  proposed  dwelling  and  the  amount  of  the  first  mortgage, 
the  second  mortgage  to  be  paid  in  monthly  installments,  or, 
payable  at  the  end  of  a  term  of  years,  maturing  when  the  first 
mortgage  is  sufficiently  reduced  to  absorb  the  second. 

As  an  alternative,  the  realty  corporation  may  make  a  loan  for 
the  full  value  of  the  house,  taking  as  security  a  first  and  second 
mortgage  on  the  lot  and  proposed  building,  the  first  mortgage 
being  payable  at  the  end  of  a  term  of  years  and  of  such  form 
as  to  render  it  easily  marketable,  the  second  mortgage  being 
payable  in  monthly  installments.  The  corporation  then  liq- 
uidates its  mortgages  to  the  fullest  extent,  as  fast  as  received,  and 
uses  the  money  thus  obtained  as  a  revolving  fund  to  continue 
operations.  Its  invested  capital  will  thus  amount  to  between  10 
and  25  per  cent,  of  the  total  value  of  mortgages  held.  The 
stock  of  the  corporation  may  be  held  wholly  or  in  part  by  the 
parent  industry  or  industries,  although  the  latter  is  the  more 
customary  procedure. 

Responsibility  for  carrying  on  building  operations  generally 
rests  with  the  borrower.  However,  in  order  fully  to  protect  its 
interests,  such  an  organization  should  exercise  a  watchful  supervi- 
sion over  construction  work,  even  to  the  extent  of  supplying 
technical  skill,  approval  of  plans  and  inspection  of  workmanship. 

Housing  Corporation. — This  is  essentially  a  building  organiza- 
tion. A  chartered  corporation  is  organized  with  a  stock  issue 
so  proportioned  as  to  finance  the  required  rate  of  building  houses. 


PUXDAMEN1  i/.  PRELIMINARY  CONSIDERATIOy 

Stock  i-  taken  by  the  Industrial  concerns  interested,  by  public- 
Bpirited  organizations,  if  anj  are  involved,  and  to  thi 
extent  possible  by  the  public  al  large.  The  charter  of  the 
corporation  Bhould  contain  a  limited  dividend  clause.  With  the 
capital  thus  obtained,  a  group  of  houses  is  built  under  the  ad- 
ministration of  the  corporation.  These  bouses  are  sold  to  men 
of  good  health  and  Btanding  regularly  employed  by  the  industry 
or  industries  concerned,  and  of  proven  integrity. 

Bales  are  made  on  a  cash  payment  of  a  specified  per  cent .  of  the 
sales  price,  such  price  including  .-ill  of  the  expense  whatsoever  or 
the  allocation  thereof  necessary  to  produce  and  deliver  the  house; 
n  would  comprise  interesl  charges,  administration,  overhead, 
taxes  and  insurance,  proper  allowance  for  guarantees  to  public 
Bervice  <•< ir| >< .el i  ii .11- .  etc.  Ai  the  time  of  sale  the  purchaser 
executes  two  morgages  in  behalf  of  the  housing  corporation; 
the  first  mortgage  for  50  to  70  per  cent,  of  the  sale  price  and  the 
Becond  mortgage  for  a  face  value  which  is  the  difference  between 
the  total  Bale  price  and  the  Bum  of  the  first  mortgage  and  the 
initial  cash  payment.  The  purchaser  further  pays  a  specified 
sum  per  month,  usually  about  one  per  cent.,  to  cover  interest  and 
insurance,  (fire  and  life),  the  balance  being  applied  to  the  reduc- 
tion of  i  he  mortgage. 

The  corporation  then  negotiates  the  first  mortgage  and  liqui- 
date- the  Becond  mortgage,  insofar  as  possible,  using  the  funds 
thereby  obtained  to  continue  building  operations.  As  a  varia- 
tion, in  large  housing  corporations,  mortgage  bonds  may  be  is- 
sued against  the  first  mortgages  and  sold  to  the  public  in  small 
denominations,  thus  distributing  and  absorbing  the  financial 
burden. 

A  typical  plan  of  this  sort  was  outlined  in  :i  Bulletin  issued  by 
the   1'.  S.   Department    of  Labor,    Information   and    Education 
nee,  May  19,  1919. 

"The  plan  involves  an  incroporated  company  with  a  capib 
Slid)  workmen  as  can  pay  down  10  per 
house  and  lot  will  be  loaned  50  per  cent,  by  banket 
and  the  remaining    l<>  per  cent,  will  be  provided  bj  pany, 

which    will   take  a  cond  mi  i 

[on  have  agreed  to  loan  the  company  funds  up 
of  the  Becond  mort 
the  company  tied  up  in  any  one  prop 
of  the  value  of  that  property  and  the  capital  rill  l»e 


30  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

.adequate  for  the  promotion  of  homes  up  to  the  value  of  $250,000.  In 
the  meantime,  those  who  build  (or  purchase)  the  houses  pay  off  their 
indebtedness  at  the  rate  of  one  per  cent,  per  month.  Thus,  the  com- 
pany will  have  availabe  additional  funds  for  further  operations." 

Company  Housing  Bureau. — In  this  case  a  housing  organiza- 
tion, generally  a  corporation,  is  formed  by  the  parent  industry 
which  owns  or  controls  all  stock  in  such  organization.  It  may 
be  chartered  with  powers  broad  enough  not  only  to  deal  in  real 
estate,  but  to  build,  sell,  rent  and  to  operate.  Where  the  house 
enterprise  must  be  subsidized,  either  directly  by  capital  invest- 
ment or  by  acceptance  of  a  rate  of  return  less  than  a  legal  rate 
of  interest,  this  type  of  organization  is  generally  the  only  practi- 
cable one. 

Such  an  organization  sometimes  has  been  employed  as  a  loan 
and  realty  corporation,  through  which  the  company  will  offer  to 
loan  money,  up  to  as  much  as  90  per  cent,  of  the  proposed  value  of 
a  house  and  lot,  to  any  one  of  its  employees  who  is  a  prospective 
builder  and  borrower.  It  has  been  found  however,  in  practically 
every  instance  where  tried,  that  this  plan  encourages  purchase 
of  houses  already  existing,  rather  than  the  building  of  more 
homes  to  relieve  housing  shortage  which  is  the  real  object  of  the 
plan. 

In  case  houses  were  actually  to  be  built  at  the  borrower's  ini- 
tiative, under  this  plan,  the  same  reservations  as  described  under 
"Loan  and  Realty  Associations"  should  be  exercised  by  the 
company  housing  bureau. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  stated  that  the  tendency  is  away  from 
rather  than  toward  a  close  control  over  the  housing  corporation 
by  the  parent  industry,  for  the  reason  that  too  close  a  relation- 
ship between  the  industry  and  its  subsidiary  organisation  in- 
volves complexities  which  lessen  the  advantages  of  separate 
organizations  as  discussed  in  Chapter  XIII. 

TECHNICAL   PROGRAM 

The  broader  practical  considerations  in  the  initiation  of  a 
housing  enterprise  should  receive  proper  attention  early  in  the 
initial  stage  of  the  project.  In  fact,  the  preliminary  surveys  for 
the  project  should  be  contemporaneous  with,  or  even  precede,  the 
equally  important  matters  of  policy  having  to  do  with  methods  of 
organization  and  finance  and  with  house  ownership.  This  phase 
of  the  procedure  will  require  special  attention  to  the  following: — 


//   WDAMBNTA1    PRBLIMINAR]    CONSIDERATIONS       31 

An  inquiry  into  the  type  and  Dumber  of  houset  required 
with  an  estimate  «'f  the  range  and  proper  Belling  prices  and 

An  investigation  "t"  location!  and  rites  suitable  f<  r  housing  purp 

A  plan  for  economically  developing  the  rite  ■ 

rthy  estimate  of  cost  and  budgel  of  expenditure, 
t>.ii«-t ln-r  with  ut  least  an  approximate  program  for  construction,  which 
will  serve  for  a  basil  of  financing  the  propostion. 

Need  for  a  Program.  The  procedure  to  be  followed  in  estab- 
lishing a  modern  ami  industrial  town  cannot  be  haphazard. 
Too  much  i-  at  -take  to  permit  a  community  to  plunge  into  it. 
without  careful  ami  searching  inquiry.  The  issue  is  not  only 
thr  expense  «>i  tin-  initial  outlay  for  houses  ami  towns,  but    is 

one  of   re   paramount    importance     having  to  <1«»  with  the 

smooth  functioning  of  the  development  throughout  it<  life  in 
relation  to  the  plant.  bo  that  both  may  achieve  the  purpose  for 
which  i  hey  are  intended. 

It  has  been  unfortunate  that  many  industrial  concerns  h 
built  workingmen's  houses,  not  only  without  mature  thought 
an. I  Btudy  <>n  'he  part  of  executives,  hut-  also  without  any  ade- 
quate assistance  from  those  whose  experience  has  fitted  them  to 
give  it.  Without  doubt  it'  an  industrial  corporation  were  to 
inaugurates  new  system  in  the  manufacture  of  it-  product  or  were 
to  institute  a  new  department  in  its  work,  this  would  be  done 
only  after  a  due  Btudy,  in  which  specialists  on  the  installation  oi 
the  improvements  in  question  would  be  called  upon  for  the  bene- 
fit of  advice  ami  judgement . 

In  many  actual  instances  however,  when  the  only  hope  <»t  ob- 
taining men  to  work  in  the  plant  lay  in  providing  them  with  pro- 
per living  quarters,  it  has  happened  t  hat  officials  whoshowed 
common  sense  in  matters  pertaining  to  their  own  business,  the 
intricacies  of  which  they  well  understood,  have  rushed  into  the 
problem  of  housing,  a  prey  to  unscrupulous  or  incompetent 
buildi  Lb  a  result  they  have  had  foisted  upon  themselves  and 

their  communities  nondescript  development-,  which  later  have 
failed  signally  to  achieve  the  desired  results.  In  some  cases,  the 
fact  that  all  of  the  new  dwellings  were  occupied,  immediately 
after  completion,  led  to  the  erroneous  belief  that  an  ideal  village 
had  at  last  been  built;  hut  a-  discontent  later  became  mai 
ami  it  grew  apparent  that  the  only  reason  for  occupancy  of  the 
houses  was  that  they  offered  the  only  shelter  available,  tl  ■ 
responsible  charge  awakened  to  the  fact  that  somewhi 


32  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

thing  was  wrong.  In  the  careful  investigations  which  have 
followed  such  instances,  much  valuable  information  has  been 
developed,  which  has  raised  the  standards  of  later  developments 
built  by  the  organizations  concerned,  while  the  experience  thus 
gained  has  proved  valuable  to  others. 

The  lessons  of  experience,  at  least  in  connection  with  the 
house,  as  a  unit,  have  been  learned  fairly  well,  but  the  importance 
of  study  and  careful  planning  of  the  housing  enterprise  as  a  com- 
prehensive and  completely  unified  project,  has  yet  to  be  fully 
appreciated. 

Preliminary  Work. — Number  and  Types  of  Houses  Required. — 
The  existing  or  prospective  payroll,  together  with  the  number  of 
satisfactory  houses  available  will  furnish  the  basis  for  determining, 
with  a  high  degree  of  assurance,  the  requirements  as  to  number 
and  types  of  houses  and  the  range  of  satisfactory  selling  or  rent- 
ing prices.  The  proportion  of  skilled  to  unskilled  labor  and  the 
most  desirable  ratio  of  married  to  single  men  may  be  ascertained 
by  an  analysis  of  the  needs  of  the  various  departments,  based 
either  upon  the  recommendations  and  opinions  of  the  depart- 
ment managers,  or  upon  a  study  of  the  kind  of  labor  and  labor 
processes  best  adapted  to  each.  The  percentage  of  women  to 
be  employed  will  determine  the  necessity  or  extent  of  women's 
dormitories. 

The  nativity  and  racial  characteristics  of  the  prospective 
working  force  will,  when  learned  and  forecasted,  be  one  of  the 
governing  features  in  selecting  the  type  of  house  and  in  district- 
ing the  site.  The  mountaineer  of  Kentucky  will  require  different 
treatment  from  the  native  of  a  Massachusetts  city;  the  Mexicans 
of  Arizona  and  New  Mexico  will  demand  accommodations  and 
conditions  different  from  those  required  by  the  Slavs  and  Swedes 
of  Minnesota;  the  Italians  of  California  have  customs  to  be  satis- 
fied contrasting  with  those  of  the  Negroes  of  Alabama. 

Knowing  the  number  of  the  various  classes  of  employees,  the 
ranks  and  standings,  and  something  of  their  personal  character- 
istics, the  number  and  type  of  living  quarters  may  be  fixed.  The 
wage  scale  will  obviously  affect  if  not  control  the  total  cost  of  the 
several  types  of  houses  as  well  as  the  total  capital  investment  of 
the  enterprise.  This  subject  is  presented  as  a  definite  problem  in 
Chapter  X. 

Selection  of  Site. — If  the  industry  is  not  established  and  if 
essential  requirements  do  not  fix  the  location,  so  that  widest 


ii  \  DA  Ml.  \  /  1/   -"/.'//  /  Ml\  ARY  <  ONSIDERA  I  TONS 

latitude  is  allowed,  tin-  subject  requires  great  breadth  of  vision 
and  ability  of  a  high  order.  <  Ilimatic,  political  and  labor  condi- 
tions existing  in  the  different  Btates  and  regions  must  be  known 
and  weighed,  in  connection  with  the  special  requirement*  of  the 
industry.     The  cost  of  living  and  wages,  the  ■■  »n,  trans- 

portation and  health  conditions  must   be  known.     I  g  in- 

dustries and  the  law  of  attraction  of  Bimilar  industries  Bhould 
l«-  considered. 

Whether  the  town  is  to  be  .- 1 1 1  urban  addition  or  an  isol 
rural  community  greatly  affects  the  choice  of  site.  iphy 

inn!  soil  conditions,  pleasing  vistas,  freedom  from  local  nui- 
sances, Buch  as  mosquito  Bwamps,  factory  smoke  etc. 
land,  political  boundries,  ownership  of  sites;  nearness  to  existing 
communities,  accessibility  to  and  from  the  plant,  transporta- 
tion facilities;  highways;  availability  and  cost  of  developing 
water,  sewerage,  drainage,  gas  and  electrical  utilities;  all  must 
be  given  due  weight  and  adequate  conclusions  drawn. 

Projected  Development  oj  the  Site.— A  preliminary  develop- 
ment of  the  site  -elected  Bhould  next  be  undertaken,  for  the 
purpose  of  determining  more  carefully  the  number  of  building 
lots  and  various  types  available,  the  approximate  districtu 
the  land,  the  location  or  relocation  of  thoroughfares  and  arterial 
streets,  the  availability  and  location  of  area-  for  park-,  recreation 
and  civic  center-  and  the  availability  or  location  of  the  principal 
utilities.  This  stage  of  the  woik  will  serve  to  outline  the  nature 
and  the  most  economical  disposition  of  the  housing  development, 
and  will  form  an  adequate  basis  for  the  preparation  of  a  budget 
and  a  practical  program. 

Budget  and  Program.  -The  final  Btage  of  the  preliminary  work 
should  be  tit*-  preparation  of  a  budget  of  cost  and  a  program  of 
expenditure.  The  budget  will  l>e  based  upon  a  preliminary 
estimate  of  the  cost  of  the  project,  a  knowledge  of  the  met!  i 
financing,  the  amount  of  money  that  is  or  may  be  made  available 
and  the  program  of  construction.  The  program  of  expenditure 
will  be  correlated  with  the  program  of  construction  and  the  si 
sequence  and  periods  in  which  the  various  Bections  of  develop- 
ment aie  to  l.<-  completed  will  in  turn  depend  upon  the  demand  for 
home-. 

Design     and     Construction.      The     preliminaries     concluded, 
policies  determined,   budgets  made  up  and  fund-  procun 

appropriated,  the  project    may   then   logically  enter  m1' 

Btructioi 


34  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

It  cannot  be  emphasized  too  strongly,  however,  that  construc- 
tion should  be  preceded  by  the  preparation  of  detailed  plans 
and  specifications,  a  precept  which  seems  obvious  enough,  but 
which  nevertheless  is  too  frequently  disregarded.  The  funda- 
mental reason  for  planning  any  undertaking  is  obviously  economy 
and  the  assurance  of  actually  accomplishing  the  desired  end. 
Perhaps  nowhere  in  the  construction  field  are  there  more  fertile 
opportunities  for  accomplishing  better  results,  frequently  at  an 
astonishing  saving  in  expenditure,  through  planning,  than  in  the 
construction  of  the  large  scale  housing  development  with  its 
manifold  needs  and  activities,  and  therefore  its  manifold  oppor- 
tunities for  waste. 

Coordination  of  these  various  building  activities,  organization 
methods  as  applied  to  the  construction  program  and  the  main- 
tenance of  an  effective  liaison  can  be  made  to  yield  returns,  in 
savings,  well  worth  while.  For  example,  the  relation  between 
street  and  lot  grading;  the  use  of  specialized  squads  of  workmen 
successively,  in  house  construction;  the  opportunities  for  sav- 
ing in  utility  construction  by  use  of  a  common  trench  and  many 
other  details;  quantity  purchases  and  the  correct  routing  of 
materials;  and  in  short  the  avoiding  of  all  the  mistakes  of  hap- 
hazard, time-to-time  building. 

Building  Staff— Town  building,  in  its  entirety,  requires  the 
services  of  various  professions.  No  one  of  these  can  properly 
function  without  the  cooperation  of  the  others. 

In  connection  with  its  war  housing  work,  the  United  States 
Government  found  it  necessary  to  organize  the  services  of  in- 
dustrial managers,  engineers,  architects,  town  planners,  trans- 
portation experts,  realtors,  sociologists  and  contractors,  in  order- 
to  achieve  its  purpose.  All  the  phases  represented  by  these 
different  professions  must  be  carefully  coordinated  and  balanced, 
if  an  economical,  comfortable,  attractive,  hygienic  town  is  to 
result.  All  too  often  it  has  been  found,  even  in  recently  con- 
structed industrial  towns,  that  certain  phases  have  been  over- 
weighted to  the  detriment  of  the  project  as  a  whole. 

Until  very  recently  no  town  building  organizations,  containing 
men  trained  in  the  various  professional  branches  essential  to 
successful  town  construction,  have  been  available.  It  has  usually 
been  necessary  to  engage  independent  specialists  who  in  spite  of  a 
desire  to  cooperate,  often  worked  at  cross  purposes;  frequently 
causing  delays,  duplication  of  efforts,  and  unnecessary  expense. 


//   WDAMENTAL  PBELIMINAR]    CONSIDERATIONS      35 

Industrial  managere  can  readily  understand  the  complications 
inherent  in  such  an  arrangement.  Elappily,  especially  during 
the  War,  the  complexity  of  town  building  has  been  recognised; 
and  comprehensive  town  building  organizal  ions  have  been  formed 
which  include,  in  their  varied  personnel,  men  trained  in  the 
particular  branches  essential  to  successful  and  economical 
town  building.  The  field  ifi  large  and  the  appreciation  of  th<- 
problem  and  of  the  advantages  of  Buch  codrdinated  Bervice  u 
growing. 


CHAPTER  III 
SELECTION  OF  SITE 

Housing  Site  in  Relation  to  Location  of  Industries — 
General  Considerations  Affecting  Town  Site  Loca- 
TION — Investigations  and  Studies  Preliminary  to  Site 
Selection 

Introduction. — The  success  which  attends  the  solution  of  the 
industrial  housing  problem  will  depend  in  a  great  measure  upon 
the  character  and  location  of  the  site  selected  for  the  building 
operations.  Irrespective  of  the  merits  of  the  housing  policy 
which  the  company  is  desirous  of  following,  that  which  may 
actually  be  accomplished  will  be  determined  in  many  ways  by,the 
restrictions  andjmiitations  imposed  by  the  site7"~The  selection 
oTthis i  must,  therefore,  receive  very  careful  consideration  and 
it  should  not  be  made  until  the  general  policies  have  been  con- 
sidered and  the  chief  requirements  for  housing  formulated. 

HOUSING  SITE  IN  RELATION  TO  INDUSTRIAL  LOCATION 

The  selection  of  the  building  site  may  be  subject  to  a  variety  of 
controlling  and  limiting  conditions.  It  may  arise  as  one  of  the 
elements  assoc'ated  with  and  related  to  other  factors  which  deter- 
mine the  definite  selection  of  a  plant  site;  or,  in  very  broad  terms, 
housing  conditions  and  opportunities  for  their  expansion,  may 
be  a  factor  in  regional  location  for  an  industry. 

The  two  general  conditions  under  which  housing  sites  are  usu- 
ally selected  are;  first,  where  the  industry  itself  is  a  projected  one 
a.nrl  n.  spW.inn  for  its  location  lias_.not_beeiLJnad.e,  and  second, 
where  housing  is  to  be  provided  for  going  and  established  plants. 
The  investigation  which  should  precede  site  selection  in  tEeTfirst 
instance  is  more  involved  and  complex  than  in  the  latter,  since 
there  are  more  cond  tions,  often  conflicting,  to  be  satisfied. 

When  a  new  industrial  plant  is  to  be  located,  the  housing  of  the 
industrial  workers  must  receive  just  as  careful  consideration  at 
the  outset  as  the  other  factors  which  affect  or  concern  the  loca- 

36 


SELEi  TIOS    "I    SITE 


37 


< 


t  i,  ,11  of  the  plant  and  the  problems  of  operation  and  production. 
The  opportunity  is  then  present  to  Bolve  the  housing  problem  in  a 
satisfactory  manner.  It'  left  to  chance,  or  to  later  determina- 
tion, this  may  prevent  the  development  or  successful  operation 
of  the  industry  in  its  illy  chosen  location;  or,  it  may  make  the 
i  housing  very  expensive.  Housing  is  therefore  to  be  «•<•"- 
sidered  as  one  of  the  important  factors  concerned  in  plant  loca- 
t  ions  .- 1 r i <  1  in  product  ion. 

Industrial  and  Economic  Requirements  of  Plant.     Theseleo-i 
Ition  of  the  region,  the  vicinity,  and  finally  the  definite  site,  in 
which  the  proposed  plant  is  to  be  built,  involves  in  man 
the  fulfillment  of  certain  requirements  peculiar  to  that  industry, 
and  conformity  to  various  economic  and  business  conditions  that! 
enter  in   varied  measure  into  the  operation  of  all  industries. 
Special  requirements  for  certain  industries  will  operate  to  limit 
the  location,  either  to  definite  situations  or  to  regions  r> 

g  peculiar  requirements  which  are  absolutely  oecessary  for  the 
londuct  of  that  industry.  Mining  plant-,  for  instance,  are 
necessarily  restricted  to  those  districts  where  the  ore  or  mineral 
deposits  are  found;  the  shipbuilding  industry  musl  perforce  be 
located  on  a  site  possessing  a  navigable  water  fronl  ot  sufficient 
depth  and  width.  For  certain  industries,  using  large  quantit 
of  water  in  it-  processes,  the  plant  site  must  be  adjacent  to  a  suffi- 
cient body  of  water.  <>r  to  economical  possibilities  for  the  develop- 
ment of  a  sufficient  water  supply.  Tl^e  cheapness  and  availability 
of  fuel  or  power  will  exerl   a  Btrong  influence  and  be  a  deter- 

/  mining  factor  in  the  -election  67  BlMJH  fuVuiany  mdustnes.  In- 
dustries  which  are  hazardous  in  their  nature,  or  productive  of 
unavoidable  odors,  noxiouc  and  other  auisances  will  seek 


►sullied  locat lolis. 

I  conomic  locat 


ion  with  regard  to  transportation  of  raw  ma- 


terial roduct, 

will  be  the  detennining  factor  in  the  selection  of  the  location  of 
many  industries.     As  to  whether  nearness  1  of  raw  ma- 

terial, or  location  at  point-  favorable  for  distribution  will  pre- 
dominate, will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the  industry,  and  be 
largely  influenced  by  the  form  and  hulk  of  the  product  manu- 
factured. Industries  inherently  reductive  in  their  pi 
iquiring  hulk  of  raw  material  which  becomes  greatly  reduced  in 
weight  and  volume  in  process  of  manufacture,  will  have  - 

dency  to  locate  in  proximity  to  the  boui  rial.! 


38  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Where  raw  materials  of  several  kinds  are  used  in  bulk,  the  loca- 
tion may  be  made  at  any  one  of  the  sources  of  supply,  or  at 
points  where  convenient  transportation  facilities  are  available 
for  all  of  them.  In  any  event  transportation  and  terminal  facili- 
ties will  be  most  important  considerations. 

In  some  industries  climatic  conditions,  the  amount  of  rainfall, 
*Jhumidity,  the  extremes  and  variations  of  temperature  will  have 
/an  important  influence  on  the  plant  operation  and  will  so  affect 
^j    the  choice  of  site. 

The  location  of  many  manufacturing  industries,  particularly 
those  where  skilled  workmanship  enters  into  the  final  manufac- 
ture and  assembling  of  the  finished  product,  will  be  to  a  great 
extent  controlled  by  labor  conditions.  This  factor  is  perhaps 
best  expressed  as  that  of  the  operation  of  the  law  of  "The  Attrac- 
tion of  Similar  Industries."  This  may  be  a  controlling  factor 
even  chough  conditions  in  the  locality  are  not  otherwise  relatively 
■  as  favorable  as  others  for  economic  production.  The  location  of 
,0  S*  the  New  England  cotton  manufacturing  industry,  in  a  region  far 
removed  from  the  source  of  supply,  is  a  well  known  early  instance 
of  the  operation  of  this  law.  It  therefore  follows  that  where  a 
section  has  become  a  leading  industrial  center  for  a  given  kind 
of  manufacture,  the  availability  of  specialized  and  skilled  labor 
at  that  point  will  continue  to  attract  new  enterprises  of  the  same 
or  related  kind. 

The  particular  requirements  of  an  industry,  which  determine 
the  definite  selection  of  its  site  will  depend  upon  the  nature  of  the 
works  and  the  size  and  capacity  of  the  plant.  The  require- 
ments as  to  the  topography  of  the  site  and  its  size,  shape,  and 
the  possibility  of  future  extension  must  be  fully  considered. 
Where  the  requirements  are  such  as  to  demand  location  immedi- 
ately on  the  line  of  a  railroad,  or  where  there  must  be  opportuni- 
ties for  convenient  and  cheap  disposal  of  waste  product,  these 
conditions  must  be  met. 

Housing  as  a  Factor  in  Plant  Location. — Housing  has  been  re- 
cognized as  one  of  the  factors  which  must,  of  necessity,  enter 
into  the  selection  of  the  location  of  the  industry.  The  problem 
is  to  select  such  a  location  for  the  industry  as  will  fulfill  the  indus- 
trial and  economic  requirements  of  the  industry  itself  and  at  the 
same  time  make  ample  provision  for  a  supply  of  efficient  and  loyal 
workmen. 

There  are  a  number  of  ways  in  which  this  may  be  accomplished. 


SELEi  TWh   01    SITE 

The  more  oommon  method,  prior  to  the  present  day  conditions, 
was  to  Locate  the  industrj  in  or  close  to  a  populated  district, 
under  conditions  in  which  the  housing  requirements  would  take 
care  of  themselves  bj  becoming  merged  with  those  of  the  com- 
munity. This  policy  can  be  followed  only  where  there  is  either 
a  sufficient  Dumber  of  suitable  houses  available  for  occupancy .  or 
where  building  and  business  conditions  are  Buch  afi  to  insure 
eonstruction  by  individuals.  I  Such  a  plan  conveys  do  assurance 
of  satisfactory  housing  conditions  and  failure  of  realization  may 
react  to  the  detriment  of  the  industry^ 

\'  other  plan  is  to  locate  the  plant  in  a  district  where  many  of 

t,*the   utihties   and   aecessities   and   community   advantages   are 

available,  and  ran  be  in  part  used,  and  then  to  build  either  di- 

rectly,   or  in   conjunction    with   other  manufacturers,   suitable 

housing  facit  [lit 

The  third  plan  which  has  been  followed  in  recent  years  by  several 
of  the  larger  industries,  has  been  to  select  a  site  in  a  rural  region, 
bo  far  removed  from  existing  facilitii  i  constitute  the  devel- 

opment of  an  isolated  site. 

Whatever  may  be  the  plan  adopted  for  housing,  the  underlying 
factors  of  the  housing  problem  will  include  consideration  for 
requisite  area;  suitable  topography;  accessibility  to  the  plant 
and  to  any  Deighboring  communities,  whose  facilities  for  recrea- 
tion and  religion  are  to  be  depended  upon:  the  possibilit 
tablishing  proper  health  conditions  and  of  providing  a  reasonable 
measure  of  amenity  and  attractivem 

The  requirements  of  a  site  suitable  for  housing  are  hereafter  dis- 
cussed in  some  detail  and  it  is  proposed  to  point  out  in  thi> 
chapter  only  the  chief  requirements  as  to  housing,  which  must  be 
considered  conjointly  with  the  other  factors  when  the  selection  of 
the  Bite  of  the  plant,  i^  made.  These  fundamental  factors  will 
include  the    (   .       thfi  land,  the  the  development  of  the 

BJtfiJvith  all  improvements  ami  utilities  ami  the  erection  thereon 
of  building  ami  the  cost  of  transportation;  the  extent  to  which 

mmunity  facilities,  such  as  schools,  chuxebj  ttion  pla 

He  must  1"'  provided,  will  also  have  an  important  bearing.     The 
if  providing  housing,  as  comprehended  by  the  foregoing 
classification,    together    with  other  of   industrial   con- 

truction   Bhould   he  weighed  for  possible  location   in  ordei 
determine  that  which  i-  best  adaptable  and  u  omical  to 

const  ruct . 


»tt 


40  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS  AFFECTING  TOWNSITE  LOCATIONS 

Working  conditions  within  the  plant  and  living  conditions  within 
the  town  greatly  affect  the  stability  of  labor.  Phases  dealing 
with  such  working  conditions :  as  hours  of  labor,  wages,  bonuses, 
piece  payments,  labor  saving  devices,  safety  devices,  elimination 
of  disagreeable  tasks,  etc.,  all  lie  within  the  sphere  of  the  indus- 
trial engineer  and  plant  expert,  as  do  all  the  previous  considera- 
tions heretofore  mentioned.  Factors  affecting  living  conditions 
— as  houses,  stores,  other  buildings,  sanitation,  utilities,  and  re- 
creational and  educational  facilities,  etc. — are  phases  which  call 
for  the  consideration  of  town  building  specialists. 

The  selection  of  a  town  site  is  both  a  technical  and  economic 
problem ;  it  is  complex  because  of  the  number  and  interrelation- 
ship of  the  various  factors  involved;  and  there  is  just  as  much 
necessity  for  the  exercise  of  skill  and  experience  in  the  deter- 
mination of  the  site  as  in  any  of  the  many  problems  of  produc- 
tion or  operation  of  industry  which  require  the  services  of 
specialists  for  their  proper  solution. 

Distance  Between  Plant  and  Town. — The  location  of  the  plant, 
fixed  either  by  technical  plant  considerations,  commercial  advan- 
tages, climatic  conditions  or  presence  of  similar  industries,  may  be 
established  either  in  or  adjacent  to  a  town,  or  in  an  isolated 
location. 

The  choice  of  a  site  for  the  industrial  town,  to  serve  either  of  the 
above  plant  locations,  is  limjled  by.ajinje^zone,  any  area  within 
which  is  within  a  certain  time  distance  from  the  plant.  The 
town  preferably  sjiould  not  be  more  than  15  to  20  minutes  walking 
distance  from  the  plant,  or  not  more  than  30  to  40  minutes3y 
convenient  and  dependable  transportation  service. 

Factors  which  Relieve  Distances. — The  allowable  distance  from 
the  plant  to  the  worker's  home  will  be  affected  by  conditions 
other  than  the  time  it  takes  to  cover  it  in  walking.  When  access 
to  the  plant  from  the  home  may  be  made  in  a  comfortable,  agree- 
able and  convenient  manner,  the  lessening  of  fatigue  will  tend 
to  minimize  the  effect  of  distance.  Tliere  should,  jheref ore,  be 
providedwelt  planned  routesleading  from  the  homes  to  the  plant, 
where  walking  conditions  will  be  good,  safe  "and  convenient. 
Where  approach  paths  or  roadways  are  provided,  they  should  be 
laid  out  in  easy  grades,  be  well  drained  and  surfaced  and  grade 
crossings  should  be  avoided. 


/  /  -  / i<>\   OP  si  1 1:  I  i 

Bhower  bathe  at  the  plan!  alleviate  the  fatigue  of  long  tripe 
home  and  many  companies  have  now  established  modern  wash- 
ing and  kitliin^  facilities  for  thie  reason.  Most  workmen 
nowaday  -  like  to  go  to  and  from  their  work  dry  and  'Iran.  Such 
self-respect  ie  commendable  and  should  !"■  encouraged  by  provid- 
ing Buitable  means  whereby  it.  may  !»<•  satisfied.  In  addition  to 
i<-  cleansing  effect  the  Bhower  bath  refreshes  the  tired  workman, 
bo  that  he  makce  the  journey  home  after  a  hard  day'e  work 
in  a  iih ire  agreeable  frame  of  mind. 

Many  companies,  employing  large  numbers  of  women  woi  I 
have  facilitated  the  movement    between   homes  and  the  plant 
by  allowing  the   women   to  quit    work   before  the  men.     Thia 
avoids  much  of  the  rush  and  jostle  for  women  workere  at   the 
plan'  ■-.  hen  t  he  w  hist  Ie  blow  b. 

In  isolated  town-  tfye  compam  should  gee,  where  transportation 

accomi lations    are   necessary,    thai    they    are    provided    at 

inable  cost,  ami  are  adequate  an3  comionablc;  tabor 
trains  have  frequently  Been  neglected  feuturea;  tJiupluyweiil 
will  be  made  more  attractive  it'  measures  are  taken  to  insure 
cleanliness  and  protect  overcrowding. 

Map  Showing  .1  l  With  the  plant  site  fixed  and 

knowing  the  time  limits  between  plant  and  townsite,  an  area 
can  be  Bhown  which  will  include  tin'  limiting  possibilitii 
choice  for  the  tow  osite.  The  size  and  Bhape  of  this  area  will  1  c 
affected,  not  only  by  the  topography,  but  by  the  type  and  charac- 
ter of  the  transportation  facilities  thai  exisl  or  that  may  l< 
economically  developed.  The  distance  from  the  plant  to  th< 
outer  limits  may  vary  from  one  to  fifteen  miles,  according  to  th< 

mean-  ■>!"  t  tan-it. 

After  ascertaining  the  limiting  area  for  town  site  possibilitie 
by  means  of  the  map.  a  general  question  to  be  considered,  i  • 
the  particular  site  for  the  town  is  Belected,  is  whether  or  nol  it  is 
expedient  and  advisable  t < »  locate  the  plant  and  town  adjacenl 
i  o  each  <  it  her  or  to  have  '  hem  apart . 

Advantages  of  Town  and  Plant  Adjacent.     A  town  buill  close 
to  the   factory   permits   the  empl  to   walk  to  and   from 

their  work.  It  reduces  the  cost  of  living,  as  it  cuts  out 
daily  transportation  expense.  Jt  eliminates,  <>n  the  part  ol  t !»»• 
company,  the  necessity  of  building  or  meddling  with  transit 
facilities,     rtjpermits  the  woi  to  their  homes  for  their 

mid-day  meal,  thereby  saving  and  perhape  securing 


42  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

more  to  their  tastes.  It  obviates  the  necessity  of  conducting 
lunch  rooms  for  most  of  the  men  at  the  plant.  It  provides  that 
workmen  are  close  at  hand  in  case  of 'accidents,  breakdowns 
or  other  emergencies.  It  may  permit  less  costly  construction, 
as  erection  of  the  town  and  plant  at  one  location  simplifies  the 
shipment  and  hauling  of  building  materials  and  may  reduce  the 
cost  of  supervision.  The  proximity  of  the  town  to  the  plant 
will  generally  reduce  somewhat  the  cost  of  lighting,  heating  and 
fire  protection  for  the  town  and  other  utilities.  It  permits  the 
company  to  have  all  its  holdings  contiguous,  possibly  simplifying 
the  acquirement  of  land. 

Disadvantages  of  Town  and  Plant  Adjacent. — Such  proximity 
restricts  the  choice  of  sites.  Frequently  land  suitable  for  an 
industry  may  be  unsuitable  for  the  town,  or  at  least  much  more 
adaptable,  and  attractive  spacious  townsite  areas  may  be  ac- 
quired if  the  choice  is  not  so  restricted.  Adjacency  permits  the 
atmosphere  of  the  plant  to  pervade  the  home.  It  fails  to 
furnish  the  daily  break  between  working  and  living  which  is  so 
advantageous  to  both.  Many  of  the  dangers  and  nuisances 
and  necessarily  unsightly  features  incident  to  the  factory  are  not 
escaped.  Noise,  smoke  and  odors  from  the  plant  may  make  the 
town  less  attractive. 

Decision  Rests  upon  Many  Factors. — No  definite  general 
recommendation  can  be  made  in  regard  to  this  question  of  proxi- 
mity. The  decision  must  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  plant, 
the  nature  of  the  plant  site,  the  character  of  the  country  within 
suitable  distance  of  the  factory,  and  the  status  of  the  transporta- 
tion facilities.  Both  possibilities  should  be  carefully  investigated 
with  an  open  mind.  While  first  costs  should  be  kept  in  mind, 
economical  and  agreeable  living  conditions  throughout  the  life 
of  the  town  are  of  greater  importance.  As  a  general  rule,  a 
townsite  reasonably  removed  from  the  plant  is  conducive  to 
the  best  and  most  wholesome  living  conditions. 

Urban  versus  Rural  Towns. — There  may  be  a  choice  of  build- 
ing the  industrial  townsite  in  such  a  position  that  it  may  be 
annexed  to  a  growing  city;  or  of  establishing  the  town  in  an 
isolated  location,  so  that  it  will  remain  a  strictly  self  contained, 
separate  town. 

Policy  of  Home  Ownership. — The  decision  in  this  matter 
hinges  largely  upon  whether  or  not  the  policy  of  the  company 


ELECTION  OF  SITE  !■' 

i-  to  maintain  ownership  of  the  houses  or  to  -'-II  them.  An 
urban  or  Buburban  development  lends  itself  more  favorably 
Bale's  policy,  because  Buch  a  Bite  affords  diverse  occupations  to 
members  of  the  workingman's  family.  Moreover,  the  urban  rite 
provides  a  wider  opportunity  for  greater  social  and  recreational 
activities,  and  less  expense  to  the  local  community. 

<  nstruction  tut'l  Maintenance  Consider aliot  .  h  spite  of 
higher  land  value,  the  cost  of  developing  within  or  adjacent  to  an 
existing  community  will  generally  be  less  than  that  of  an  Isolated 
town,  it  occasions  less  expenditures  for  Bchools,  churches, 
theatres,    hot*  etc.     The    installation    of   (Ik- 

utilities  such  as  water  Buppry,  sewerage,  gas,  and  electrical  ser- 

.  can  be  carried  out  as  a  rule  less  expensively.     Mon 
the  upkeep  and  maintenance  cost  of  municipal  utilities  may  be 
assumed,  if  within  it-  limits,  by  the  municipality. 

Disadvantages  of  Company  Towns. — If  the  houses  are  sold  to 
the  workers  and  the  industrial  housing  project  is  within  or  i-  later 
annexed  to  an  established  community,  the  company  is  relit 
of  all  the  trouble  connected  with  the  administration  of  th<-  town. 
At  its  best  the  duty  «>t"  managing  an  Industrial  town  is  an  onerous 
one;  it  complicates  rather  than  simplifies  plant  administration; 
it  gives  rise  to  a  multitude  of  situations  involving  not  only  the 

workman  hut  his  family.  It  multiplies  points  of  contact  a 
hundred  fold,  and  unfortunately  these  an-  productive  of  friction 
rather  than  good  will;  the  dual  role  of  landlord  and  employer 
in  large  industries  is  a  difficult  on.-  to  till;  it  brings  the  plant. 
atmosphere  into  the  home.  It  i-  perhaps  the  very  reason  why 
so  many  industries  have  held  aloof  from  the  whole  question  of 

in. In-trial    town-.     "Enough    difficulties   iur   in    the    plant." 

•In-  Manager,  "without  adding  to  our  trial-.*' 
i  he  above  reasons  it  will  be  found  advisable  to  select  i 
arnl  follow  a  policy  that  will  guarantee  wholesome  living  condi- 
tion-   for    the    workers,    with    the    smallest    possible    amount    of 

company  intervention.     This  can  be  ami  ha-  been  done  bu 
fully;  it  generally  mean-  the  establishment  of  a  subsidiary  land 
or  real  estate  company,  whose  functioning  ami  officials  an 
arable  from  the  industry.     Generally  speaking,  other  conditions 
being  favorable,  ami  urban  or  suburban  industrial  townsite,  is 
to  be  preferred,     [solated  niM  be  chosen  only  a-  a  matter 

of  necessity. 


44  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

INVESTIGATIONS  AND  STUDIES  PRELIMINARY  TO 
SITE  SELECTION 

With  the  limiting  area  for  sites  of  the  town  established  and 
when  such  questions  as  the  advisability  of  building  an  urban 
addition  or  an  isolated  town,  and  of  location  relative  to  the  plant 
have  been  considered,  other  factors  affecting  the  details  of  selec- 
tion of  a  definite  site  follow  in  consideration. 

It  may  well  be  that  the  determination  as  to  the  above  will  not 
be  settled  finally  until  data  on  a  number  of  sites  are  presented. 
Thus  it  may  prove  advisable  to  consider  a  site  best  suitable  for 
an  urban  addition;  another  in  a  location  most  suitable  if  the 
town  is  to  be  close  to  the  plant;  and,  finally,  a  third,  most  adapt- 
able for  an  isolated  town  site. 

Necessary  Acreage. — To  determine  the  area  necessary,  the 
number  and  types  of  houses  to  be  built,  and  the  requirements 
as  to  size  of  lot,  must  be  known;  the  quarters  necessary  for  single 
men,  the  number  and  size  of  public  buildings,  stores,  parks,  etc., 
must  be  approximately  predetermined  and  to  the  area  thus  found 
there  must  be  added  the  space  necessary  for  reasonable  future 
expansion.  Knowing  these  facts  the  minimum  area  required 
for  a  complete  townsite  is  found.  So  much  for  minimum  acreage 
required. 

General  Statement. — Irrespective  of  the  acreage  actually  neces- 
sary, the  acquisition  of  additional  land  is  generally  advisable. 
Future  unforeseen  developments  are  thus  protected.  The 
general  tendency  is  for  such  land  to  increase  in  value  and  it  may 
be  sold  later  at  a  profit  if  advisable.  It  protects  the  develop- 
ment from  undesirable  conditions  growing  up  at  its  borders.  A 
practical  procedure  to  follow  is  to  determine  the  minimum  acreage 
required  and  then  to  acquire  as  much  more  as  possibilities  of 
future  expansion  warrant  and  as  can  be  conveniently  obtained 
and  financed. 

Government  Examples. — As  a  suggestion  in  determining  the 
minimum  acreage,  interest  attaches  to  the  average  building 
density  per  acre  provided  for  in  the  128  town  site  projects  origin- 
ally planned  by  the  United  States  Housing  Corporation  which 
was  5.6  families  per  acre  of  gross  area.  The  type  of  houses 
built  affect  the  density  per  acre;  thus  rows  of  group  houses 
furnish  a  larger  number  of  families  per  acre  than  semi-detached 
or  single  detached  houses. 


<  ll<>\    OF  SITE 


!.-> 


Tabl      6  and   7   give   the   details   for  some   of   the  proji 
built   by  the  United  States  Shipping  Board,   Emergency  Flee! 
CorporatioD  and  the  United  States  Housing  <  Jorporation. 

Tabu  6.     Btai 

,\.  r,,.   i  1 1 1 .  i   ..i    Typi    "i    l  >\\  i  ii-i"-  Miu.it 

ri.it    A.  BE 


1  ).  \  .  I 


Dumb)  r 


.  umber 


Bath,  M< 
Camden,  V  .1. 
Dundalk,  Md. 
( Sloucestcr,  N ,   I 
Lorain,  < >hio. 
Newburgh,  N.  ,> 

mouth,  N.  11 
Bun  Mill.  Cheater,  Pa 
Wilmington,  1  >el 
lotti  .  Mich 


1..     I  ! 

L80  0   1,386  0 
70  9      529  0 


' 


711  ii 

II  I 

17  2 

:,7  1 

l:;  1 


:,  i   3 


117  0 
22]   Q 

1_'7  it 
271  0 
270  0 


1.-,  :, 

1  .". 

24  3 

60  i 

ii  ii 
9.  1 

i.  o 
1 

L  00  0 


84 .  S 
21   8 

_'s  :; 
37  5 

17  2 

-1    J 
1  1  i) 

it  ii 


394   6 


22.]     :\7.r> 


II 

'» 

7 

7 

'J 

II 

i) 

.".-• 

N 

9 

1 

36 

U 

78 

1 

0 

II 

in 

1 

6.  l 

5  l 

6  B 
L2   1 

7.  1 


i  [ncludi  >pen  Bpacea  and  area  devoted  to  Bchool  and  re- 

onal  purpo 

The  following  Btatemenl  ia  quoted  from  the  Ontario  Housing 

( '.,1111111! tee's  Reporl .  issued  in  1918. 

iving  ample  allowance  for  Btr<  i  te  and  open  Bpaces,  12  houses  j  er 
acre  would  permit  lota  of  2500  Bq.  ft.  In  comparison  it  i-  interesting 
to  note  that  tin-  Federal  (Canadian)  Standard*  minimum  l<>t 

,,i'  L800  Bq.  ft.  in  cities  an. I  towns,  an. I  1500  Bq.  ft.  in  villagi 

Allowing  tin-  area  required  for  the  streets,  lots  and  parks  in 
tin-  residenl  ial  Beotion  of  an  industrial  town,  the  fore-going  allow- 
ances will  result  in  a  density  of  from  eight  to  families 
per  built-up  acre.  \!  twelve  families  per  occupied 
acre  will  nut  necessarily  cause  i               i  conditions. 

Table  8  denotes  the  average  distribution  of  area  in  tern 
percentage  of  total  area  of  various  townaite  projects  planned 
by    the    United    -  i       i  rnment   during   the  recent    '• 


46 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


97  contemplated  by  the  United  States  Housing  Corporation  and 
12  of  those  built  by  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation. 


Table  7. — Statistics  of  Some  United  States  Housing  Corporation 
Developments  Showing  Effect  of  Type  of  Dwellings  on  Number 

per  Acre 


Project 


Devel- 
oped 
area 


Total 

number 

of 

dwellings 


Per  cent,  of  types  of  houses 


De- 
tached 


Semi- 
detached 


Rows 


Number 
of  houses 
per  devel- 
oped 
acre. 


Aberdeen,  Md 

Alliance,  Ohio 

Butler,  Pa 

Charleston,  S.  C 

Charleston,  W.  Va 

Elizabeth,  N.  J 

Lylcs,  Tenn 

Muskegon,  Mich 

New  Brunswick,  N.  J.  . 

New  Castle,  Del 

New  London,  Conn .... 

New  Orleans,  La 

Newport,  R.  I 

Newport  News,  Va .... 
Niagara  Falls,  N.  Y .  . . 

Niles,  Ohio 

Quincy,  Mass 

Rock  Island,  111.,  District 


Average 51.3 


26.5 
71.4 
21.5 
30.6 
16.3 
19.0 
61.1 
50.8 
43.0 
14.7 
23.2 
42.9 
9.4 

192.5 
53.2 
25.3 
62.1 

161.1 


80.0 
265.0 
167.0 
136.0 

87.0 
204.0 
125.0 
278.0 
397.0 

46.0 
188.0 
209.0 

78.0 
1,015.0 
401.0 
117.0 
398.0 
997.0 


287.1 


81.3 

100.0 

17.4 

100.0 

54.0 

0.0 

100.0 

100. 0 

10.3 

43.5 

10.7 

100.0 

12.8 

30.2 

24.3 

88.0 

82.1 

82.4 


57.6 


0.0 

0.0 
82.6 

0.0 
46.0 
50.1 

0.0 

0.0 
38.1 
22.1 
89.3 

0.0 
87.2 
30.7 
20.5 
12.0 
17.9 
17.6 

28.6 


18.7 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

49.9 

0.0 

0.0 

51.6 

34.4 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

39.1 

55.2 

0.0 

0.0 

0.0 

13.8 

3.9 
6.3 

10.3 
8.0 
9.6 

15.0 
6.7 
8.1 
7.8 
5.1 

11.8 
7.7 

12.0 
9.9 

12.7 
6.5 
9.7 
9.4 

8.9 


Table  8. — Subdivision  of  Acreage — Governmental  Housing  Projects 


Per  cenl 

.  of  area 

E.  F.  C. 

U.  S.  H.  C. 

Residential  lots 

55.1 

5.2 

26.8 

12.9 

62.3 

2.2 

Streets  and  alleys 

25.5 

Public  grounds 

10.0 

Total 

100.00 

100.0 

SEl  ECTION  OF  SITE  17 

Shape  and  Costs.  Having  determined,  from  a  study  of  the 
requirements  tentatively  considered  as  controlling,  the  area 
needed  for  the  development,  the  nexl  question  arising  undi 
lection  of  aite  us  to  compare  different  possible  areas  on  the  basis 
of  shape  i.e.,  adaptabilit}  I,  cost  to  secure  and  possible  method  of 
aoquisil  ion. 

Boundaries.  The  suitability  of  a  possible  Bite  may  be  les- 
sened bj  reason  of  the  Bhape  of  the  available  tract  which  can 
cquired.  The  boundaries  may  be  determined  by  the  ability 
to  make  reasonable  purchase  bo  thai  the  development  of  the 
tract  may  l>e  carried  <nn  in  :i  satisfactory  manner.  Otherwise, 
considerable  expense  may  be  incurred  without  adequate  return. 
The  possibility  of  being  unable  to  .1  < •«  1 1 1 i  r<  *  rights  of  way  for  a< 
or  For  utility  Lines,  etc.,  at  reasonable  rates  should  be  inquired 
into  and  will  likely  affect  Belect  ion.  Precaut  ions  should  be  taken 
tn  determine  the  possibility  of  damage  to  abutting  or  nearby 
property  arising  from  drainage  or  other  cause.  The  situation 
can  often  be  improved  by  inducing  :t<lj<»iriiri«_r  owner-  to  partici- 
pate in  bearing  part  of  the  cost  of  those  improvements  which 
I h -iiel it  their  properties:  Buch  joint  distribution  of  costs  may  make 
desirable  the  development  of  a  site  which  otherwise  could  not 
be  considered. 

It  must,  however,  not  be  supposed  from  the  :il><>ve  thai  the 

ngular  or  regular  shaped  piece  of  ground  is  most  economical 

or  desirable  in  all  cases,  as  many  other  factors  affect  the  decision 

and  some  of  the  physical  characteristics  mentioned  in  the  next 

Beet  ion  play  &  greater  pari . 

'      '  of  LandJ  Cosl  of  securing  land  is  an  important  fa 
lnit  again  not  controlling,  as  thai   which  i-  cheap  in  first 
may  be  expensive  to  develop  and  to  provide  the  facilities  required 
t  herefor. 

Land  in  isolated,  rural  territory  is  generally   less  expensive 
than   that   adjacent  to  cities,  particularly   if  purchased  b 
knowledge  of  the  location  of  the  industry  has  Keen  made  public. 

Method       I  [*wo  methods  of  acquiring  land  pn 

them  one  in  which  opt  ions  upon  or  purchase  of  ground  are 

obtained  before  announcmenl  of  factory  location;  second,  by 
codperative  action  and  pooling  of  interests  in  land  for  the  common 
good,  in  order  to  secure  the  establishment  of  an  industry. 

The  first  is  the  common,  well-known  method  of  optioninj 
purchasing  through  an  agent  and  so  getting  control  of  sufficient 
land  at   reasonable  and  normal  pi  the  identity  and 


48  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

intent  of  the  future  promoter  is  revealed.  In  the  second,  the 
possibility  of  competition  of  sites  both  for  factory  and  town  is 
held  out  to  the  people  and  owner,  and  thus  an  interest  stimulated 
to  combine  interests  and  present  the  favored  grouping  of  lands 
for  consideration  at  the  most  reasonable  price. 

Physical  Characteristics. — The  natural  conditions  of  the 
ground  affect  profoundly  the  relative  desirability  of  sites,  not 
only  as  to  first  cost  and  up-keep,  but  also  as  to  comfort  and  con- 
venience. 

Topography. — It  has  been  stated  previously  that  rugged  hills 
and  like  barriers  may  control  a  development  and  it  is  well  known 
that  the  utilization  of  river  bank  and  bottom  land  for  factories 
has  frequently  left  only  the  hills  and  gullies  as  a  chance  for  houses, 
and  added  much  to  the  expense  and  unpleasantness  of  life. 
On  the  other  hand  monotonously  level  ground  is  not  ideal,  either 
from  the  investment  or  attractive  point  of  view.  A  slightly 
rolling  area  permits  of  less  expensive  drainage  than  one  with  a 
generally  flat  surface,  as  well  as  affording  more  variety  in  treat- 
ment of  allotment  and  division  into  streets,  lots  and  open  spaces. 

Soil  Conditions. — The  kind  and  depth  of  soil  available  affects 
the  beautification  of  the  town  and  horticultural  developments  of 
lawns,  playgrounds  and  parks.  The  depth  to  rock  and  the  char- 
acter and  stability  of  the  earth  will  greatly  affect  the  cost  of 
utilities,  site  grading  and  building  cellars  and  foundations.  The 
depth  of  water  table  not  only  affects  cost  of  trenching  and  laying 
pipes,  but  involves  the  added  costs  of  sub-drainage  of  building 
foundations,  and  other  precautions  to  obviate  wet  cellars.  It 
also  is  a  large  factor  in  infiltration  into  sewer  systems  and  may 
thus  affect  not  only  the  cost  of  treatment  works  but  also  the 
maintenance  thereof. 

Climatology. — The  average  and  extreme  ranges  of  temperature 
and  precipitation  determine  to  a  large  extent  the  character  of 
house  required.  It  is  readily  appreciated  that  the  materials  of 
house  construction  in  Canada  differ  from  those  of  the  Tropics, 
but  it  is'  also  quite  as  true  that  use  of  shutters  and  overhanging 
of  eaves  also  varies  with  amounts  and  frequency  of  precipitation. 
Other  items  of  climate  affect  location. 

The  prevailing  direction  of  winds,  especially  in  connection 
with  the  subject  of  nuisance,  frequently  plays  an  important  part 
in  the  desirability  of  a  site.  The  topography  affects  this 
also,  as  ravines  or  steep  hillsides  may  and  frequently  do  cause 
accumulation  of  smoke  and  fog  banks,  so  as  to  render  unavailing 


fifj  I  l.i  I  h>\  01   SITE  19 

the  ordinary  currents  of  air  which  dissipate  and  break  up  such 
objectionable  features.  The  availability  and  frequency  of  sun- 
light are  important,  as  ii  adds  to  tin-  cheerfulni  .  Vegetation, 
Bomewhal  akin  to  this  Bubject,  may  affect  the  location  to  an 
I ,  a~  heavily  wooded  areas  add  to  1  li<-  expei  >f  the 

aecessity  of  clearing.     Bui  Borne  woods  and  retention  of  such 

as  will  not  interfere  with  construction,  are  an  advantagi 
breathing  parks    and    residential    Btreets.     The   existing 

types  of  plant  life  indicate  those  which  will  grow  easily  in  tin- 
on. 

Demography.    The  recorded  -n  !  I  <l<:itli  rates  of  the 

adjacent  settlements,  i.e.  the  known  reputation  of  the  com- 
munity as  to  healthfulnese  have  an  importanl  bearing  on  the 
desirability  of  a  Bite.  So  likewise  the  appearance  of  the  ground 
and  water  courses,  as  to  sanitary  condition  and  tli<-  prevalence 
of  tli«'  mosquito  nuisance,  although  controllable,  affects  pro- 
foundly the  genera]  suitability  of  a  tract  at  leasl  in  the  minds  of 
the  early  visitors  ;m<l  prospective  inhabitants. 

Nuisances.  All  of  the  factors  thai  cause  nuisance,  Buch  as 
objectionable  noises,  smoke,  fog,  odors  and  noxious  gases  are 
interrelated  to  topography  and  climate.  Frequently,  however, 
local  conditions  of  proximity  of  certain  types  of  indusl  ry  making 
objectionable  noises,  such  as  boiler  Bhops,  rolling  mills,  etc.,  or 
uncomfortable  odors  or  vapors,  Buch  as  laundries,  canneries,  re- 
duction or  metal  furnaces,  may  make  nearby  locations  fortown- 
decidedly  unsuitable  unless  these  be  on  the  leeward  side.  The 
noxious  gases  from  certain  industries  may  not  only  be  injurious 
brics  an<l  to  health,  but  also  to  vegetation.  Such  are  not 
to  be  permitted  in  the  vicinity  of  attractive  townsil 

Means  of  Communication.  All  available  mean-  of  transporta- 
tion, whether  by  water,  Bteam  railroads,  electric  traction  lines, 
highways  or  foot-paths,  aid  in  determining  the  selection  of 
between  two  or  more  available  ones.  Such  conveniences  may 
even  affed  t  1 1 « -  question  of  embarking  upon  Bchemes  of  amuse- 
menl  and  recreation;  for  if  available  at  a  place  not  inn  far  away 
by  means  of  easy  communication,  it  is  nol  necessary  to  build 
new  ones. 

The  distances  and  gradi 
thoroughfares  to  present  railroads,  the  possibility  of  location  of 
branch  lines,  availability  of  terminal  facilities,  Bchcduli 
vice  and  fares  to  important   centers  of  population  are  leading 
criteria    in  selecting  townsites.     Facilities    for  interchangi 


50  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

traffic  and  freight  between  available  means,  such  as  water  ways 
as  well  as  railroads  and  highways,  are  valuable  adjuncts  to  any 
town.  Then,  too,  an  available  water-front  affords  means  of 
suitable  development  for  parks  and  recreation  and  large  bodies 
of  water  present  opportunity  for  disposal  of  waste  which  with 
present  means  of  treatment,  may  be  without  objectionable  re- 
sults. 

Highways. — The  character,  exent  and  width  of  highways  in 
furnishing  adequate  and  convenient  means  of  communication 
between  village  and  factory  and  even  the  not  too  far  distant 
city,  are  becoming  more  and  more  important  in  the  selection 
of  housing  areas. 

In  the  present  days  of  automobile  trucking,  industry  even 
may  locate  away  from  a  railroad  siding  and  have  its  hauling  of 
supplies  and  product  done  by  the  use  of  motor  trucks. 

Existing  Facilities. — The  selection  of  a  townsite  in  many  cases, 
especially  when  rapidity  of  completion  is  important,  is  deter- 
mined by  the  question  of  whether  there  be  available  various  pub- 
lic utility  systems  of  sufficient  capacity  for  extension  into  new 
territory.  This  of  course  arises  particularly  where  the  industry 
is  considering  a  location  near  or  adjacent  to  a  city. 

The  possibility  of  extending  existing  utility  systems  furnishing 
a  satisfactory  water,  gas,  or  electric  supply,  and  of  utilizing  or 
connecting  with  existing  sewerage  and  drainage  works,  should  be 
carefully  investigated  and  the  relative  advantages  of  various 
available  sites  should  be  compared.'^  It  will  be  found  upon  in- 
vestigation that  many  sites,  otherwise  suitable  will  be  relatively 
much  more  expensive  to  develop  than  others  on  account  of  their 
location  relative  to  the  existing  utilities.  In  this  connection 
feasibility,  cost  and  length  of  time  required  to  afford  service 
must  be  considered  and  given  due  weight. 

The  existence  of  the  nearby  city,  with  all  of  its  public  out-door 
and  in-door  recreative,  and  educational  facilities  within  reach, 
means  that  the  needs  of  the  new  settlement  can  be  met  without 
building  for  it  alone.  Proximity  to  such  facilities  has  a  consider- 
able money  value,  since  the  necessity  of  creating  them— and  they 
are  generally  of  non-revenue  nature — is  avoided. 

Many  other  factors  affect  the  determination  of  location  and, 
like  the  above,  simply  play  their  part  in  the  weight  of  opinion. 
Not  all  will  be  found  of  a  favorable  character  in  any  one  place 
but  each  should  be  considered. 


8ELBi  TJON  01    UTS  51 

Attractiveru  It'  there  be  choice  without  undue  additional 
expense  a  site  mosl  adaptable  i<»  the  attractive  development  of 
uatural  advantages  should  be  chosen;  thus  pleasantness  and 
attractiveness  and  al  i In-  same  time  opportunity  for  out-door 
enjoymenl  and  exercise  ma}  readily  be  obtained.  Locations 
near  lakes  or  streams,  interesting  vistas,  and  pleasing  topography 
may  sometimes  appropriately  dictate  final  selection.  While  it 
be  realized  thai  attractiveness  has  a  positive  value,  care 
should  be  taken  uol   to  allow  Fulfillment   of  interesting  scenic 

bilities    i itweigh    the   ever   present    consideratioi 

economic  costs  for  the  development  of  the  area. 

Prejudices  and  Customs.  Cognizance  should  be  trivial  to  any 
local  prejudices  particularly  in  respecl  to  the  race  question.  A 
forecast  with  respect  to  the  type  of  labor  to  be  employed  is 
necessary  t<>  avoid  this.  Social  and  religious  and  political  cus- 
toms of  the  people  must  be  considered.  For  exam  pie;  the  strong 
religious  feelings  of  the  Kentucky  mountaineers  and  their 
aversion  for  work  on  Sundays  in  the  coal  mines  recently  developed 
there,  is  in  contrast  with  the  indifferent  attitude  of  the  miners 
in  Borne  of  the  western  states. 

Preference  for  house  types,  frequently  unexplainable  except 
l>v  custom  of  peoples  or  community  must  be  reckoned  with 
and  planned  for;  the  California  bungalows,  the  Philadelphia 
rows  or  groups,  the  New  England  cottage, seem  to  |  local 

attract  ion  not  common  everyw  here. 

Surroundings.  Care  must  be  exercised  in  passing  upon  the 
suitability  of  a  given  Bite  to  insure  that  the  attractiveness  and 
value  of  the  property,  and  the  living  and  social  condition  of  the 
inhabitants  will  not  be  diminished  by  the  nature  of  the  sur- 
roundings. The  existence  of  nearby  1  milt -up  districts  of  undesir- 
able character  is  to  be  particularly  avoided  as  detrimental  to 
attractive  rmanency  of  value  and  as  neutralizing  efforts 

to  maintain  good  Bocial  and  moral  conditions. 

/  iws  and  /,'  Building   restrictions,   plumbing  and 

health  regulations,  etc.,  frequently  control  the  construction 
details  of  ho.  metimes  to  an  unnecessary  and  expensive 

degree.  This  may  In-  bo  onerous  in  certain  incorporated  com- 
munities as  to  dictate  a  location  outside  of  their  political  bound- 
aries. Legal  powers,  permitting  the  accomplishment  of  certain 
aims  in  ti„.  development  of  housing  plan-  and  utilities  are  favor- 
able in  some  place-  and  not   so  well  adapted  in  others,  thus 


52  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

vitally  influencing  the  decision  between  different  locations. 
Local  customs  and  business  restrictions  may  often  cause  con- 
struction to  be  unduly  expensive. 

Conclusions. — The  selection  of  a  town  site  for  housing  industrial 
workers  is  a  many  sided  problem.  It  should  neither  be  decided 
precipitously  without  taking  in  account  all  of  the  factors,  nor 
should  the  location  of  the  proposed  plant  be  decided  without  a 
study  and  a  determination  conjointly  made  where  labor  is  to 
be  housed.  With  a  given  type  of  plant  and  number  of  workers, 
character  of  product. and  market  conditions,  and  kinds  of  labor 
required,  the  general  range  of  locations  can  be  found. 

The  next  group  of  determinations  cover  those  coming  under  the 
head  of  urban  or  rural  selection  and  those  like  adjacency  and 
remoteness.  These  two  are  affected  by  policies  of  ownership 
and  renting  which  must  be  decided  at  the  same  time. 

Then  come  the  various  detail  factors  that  should  be  con- 
sidered and  weighed  in  the  balance  of  judgment  in  selecting 
an  industrial  site.  Too  often  in  the  past  decisions  have  rested 
upon  the  influence  of  too  few,  sometimes  even  upon  whims  and 
aesthetic  tastes,  much  to  the  increase  of  final  cost  and  occasionally 
with  the  result  of  complete  failure  of  the  project. 

The  definite  selection  of  the  site  should  be  based  upon  some- 
thing more  than  mere  weight  of  opinion.  The  relative  advan- 
tages of  the  available  sites  should  be  compared  by  means  of 
preliminary  estimates  of  the  comparative  cost  of  their  develop- 
ment combined  with  the  cost  of  purchase.  This  will  involve 
making  estimates,  necessarily  hurried  and  incomplete,  but,  suffi- 
ciently close  and  dependable  to  indicate  true  comparisons. 
It  must  be  realized  that  there  are  large  differences  in  cost  of 
developing  various  sites,  in  excavating  cellars,  installing  utilities, 
etc. ;  that  some  sites  will  require  much  more  to  transform  into  a 
community  than  others.  The  cheaper  land  will  not  always  be 
the  most  economical  in  the  end  as  the  amount  saved  in  its  pur- 
chase may  be  absorbed  in  expenditures  which  better  located 
and  more  expensive  land  may  not  require. 

It  is  the  hope  and  expectation  that  the  remaining  chapters  of 
this  book  will  not  only  show  the  need  of  studying  all  factors  but 
the  probable  weight  needed  to  be  given  to  each;  with  the  result 
that  a  happy  and  judicious  decision  will  result  in  any  given  case 
after  a  review  of  all  the  conditions. 


(  ii  \ i •  ri  i:  i\ 

DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN 
Allotment   "i    Areas    The   Btbbbt   Btstem— Summabt    <•» 

I1,;,,,  i  ix  ki        Ki  I  i.m  I   "\imi  M  n    I  )ia  BLOPMENT8 

Introduction.     While  a  well  developed  town  plan  i-  the 
omrmtinl  in  the  preparation  <'i"  a  definite  program  for  a  project, 
Mi,-li  a  plan  ,-an  be  worked  <>nt  ami  finally  adopted  "iily  after 
many   underlying  problems  and  relationships  have  been  con- 
sidered ami  solved. 

A  completely  evolved  town  plan  will  ordinarily  include  the 

following  main   feat  n 

Division  of  the  ares  into  districts  according  to  character  of  use. 
(6)  Bystem  «>!'  main  or  arterial  Btreets. 

oondary  or  Bub-arterial,  business,  and  residential 

e  trei 

(,h  Bub-division  of  the  blocks  into  building  ! 

Transportation   facilities;    including  Btreet    and   trunk  railway.-, 
and  railroad  Btations,  or  both. 
(/)  Parks,  playgrounds,  civic  or  community  centers,  Bchools,  public 
i i-i >■  1 1 >1  i< -  buildings  and  Bpecial  featun  [uired,  Buch  a- 1.. ea- 

tions  for  public  utility  structures. 

(,i)  Gardens  or  yard  developments,  either  in  rear  yards  or  allotn 

The  extent  ">  which  the  various  foregoing  features  are  U 
introduced  into  the  plan  <>i"  a  housing  development  will  depend 
very  largely  upon  its  mse  and  its  location  relative  t<>  other  ami 
adjoining  communities.  The  various  elements  ami  their  under- 
lying requirements  heretofore  noted  are  more  <"•  less  interrelated; 
their  incorporation  in  a  town  plan  i»  a  problem  of  codrdination 
and  adaptation.  Too  much  emphasis  cannot  be  laid  upon  the 
importance  "i"  consistent  and  coordinated  planning,  upon  the 
for  careful  consideration  <>i'  the  essentials  of  each  ••le- 
nient «»r  feature;  an- 1  upon  the  merging  <>i"  the  whole  into  a  well 
balanced  program. 

The  simple,  hut  often  neglected,  relationship  1" 


54  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

grading  and  house  location  will  serve  as  an  illustration  of  the 
interdependence  between  different  items  of  the  plan.  Thus 
streets  should  not  only  be  located  and  graded  so  as  to  fulfill  the 
requirements  of  traffic,  access  and  drainage — their  prime  func- 
tions— but  also  should  be  fixed,  with  proper  regard  for  economic 
and  desirable  house  location,  particularly  to  minimize  the  cost 
of  lot  grading.  The  surplus  or  deficiency  of  materials  in  street 
excavation  may  well  be  a  factor  in  the  development  of  designs  for 
lot  grading.  Also  the  use  of  alleys,  with  their  attendant  expense 
of  construction  and  maintenance,  will  depend  very  largely  upon 
the  type  and  grouping  of  the  buildings.  Illustrations,  such  as  the 
foregoing,  could  be  multiplied  indefinitely,  showing  the  necessity 
and  the  practical  benefits  to  be  gained  by  the  working  out  of  a 
carefully  considered  and  comprehensive  town  plan. 

There  is  an  opportunity  for  accomplishment  in  the  planning 
of  an  entirely  new  community  which  is  not  presented  by  ordinary 
municipal  subdivisions  or  real  estate  developments.  Many  of 
the  factors,  such  as  the  character  of  buildings,  or  the  amount  and 
movement  of  traffic  which  are  frequently  problematical  in  the 
latter  instances,  can  be  made  determinate  in  the  planning  of  an 
independent,  industrial  town.  The  new  community  can,  there- 
fore, be  intelligently  planned  to  meet  definite  requirements  and 
conditions,  and  again,  the  problems  and  the  order  of  their  con- 
sideration will  be  quite  different  than  in  the  revision  or  re- 
planning  of  older  communities. 

On  account  of  the  great  variance  in  the  physical,  economic 
and  other  conditions  vitally  affecting  the  town  plan,  it  is  im- 
possible to  lay  down  hard  and  fast  rules  for  general  application. 
There  are,  however,  certain  criteria  which  may  be  applied  and 
certain  standards  which  must  be  met. 

The  street  system  must  be  so  planned  that  it  will  answer  the 
every-day  requirements  of  traffic,  business  and  access  to  the 
houses.  The  physical  well  being  and  health  of  the  community 
must  be  assured  by  providing  sufficient  light,  open  space  and  air, 
and  by  arrangements  and  utilities  which  will  promote  good 
sanitary  conditions.  The  limitations  of  cost  and  financial  return 
must  be  kept  in  mind,  and  the  expenditure  so  proportioned  be- 
tween the  various  requirements  that  it  will  be  most  effective  in 
promoting  the  health,  convenience,  amenity  and  contentment  of 
the  inhabitants.  In  other  words  the  plan  must  make  complete 
and  economical  provision  for  all  needs  of  the  residents. 


DB\  ELOPME  \  1   OF   THE   TOW  a   PLAN 

ALLOTMENT   OP   AMI 

General.  The  initial  Btep  in  the  development  of  the  plan,  after 
securing  the  topographical  and  other  fundamental  information, 
i-  the  division  of  the  area  into  districts  according  to  characb 

Suitable  areas  must  be  reserved  for  industrial,  commercial 
and    residential    developments,    for   parks,    schools    and   other 
recreational  and  community  purposes,  and  Bites  must  be  sel< 
for  public  and  Bemi-public  purposes  such  as  the  civic  center  and 
its  buildings,  railroad  stations  and  public  worl 

I,,  such  districting,  topography,  elevation  and  existing  or 
projected  transportation  lines,  will  exerl  grea1  influence.  The 
Bhape  and  location  of  the  various  districts  will  often  depend,  to  a 
considerable  extent,  upon  the  development  of  a  satisfactory 
-n  of  arterial  Btreets  for  through  traffic  and  connection  with 
other  areas  or  communities.  The  work  of  division  must,  there- 
fore, 1"'  carried  oul  in  close  connection  with  the  arrangement 
of  the  arterial  Btreel  system. 

Districting  and  Zoning.  -The  number  and  kind  of  districts 
and  residential  Bub-districts  which  will  be  required  will  be 
controlled  by  the  contemplated  size  of  town  ami  variety  in  type 
of  industries  and  houses,  the  required  size  and  Bhape  of  1"'-.  and 
the  cost  of  land.  Districting  consists,  primarily,  in  utilizing  the 
various  portions  of  the  town  and  parcels  of  land  in  Buch 
manner  as  b  rve  the  health,  welfare  and  f  the 

the  community  tothe  besl  purpose.  [1  furthermore  should  include 
definition  of  restrictions  or  zoning,  to  establish  the  districting 
policy  and  to  insure  permanency  in  the  use  of  property. 

It  is  necessary,  aot  only  to  make  the  most  effective  use  of  the 
property  and  to  build  on  the  most,  adaptable  ground,  but  also 
bo  protect  tin-  future  purchaser.  Zoning  regulations  should 
be  promulgated  and  enforced  from  the  beginning,  and  Bhould 
ict,  among  ether  thjngs,  the  percentage  of  1"'  occupied,  the 
height  of  buildings  and  the  use  and  occupancy  of  buildings.  This 
will  detine  the  development  of  districts  for  many  ;•  to  come. 
Such  regulations  ate  uow  being  enforced  in  a  Dumber  of  American 
cities  and  are  l»inLr  upheld  by  the  courts.  They  insure  that  the 
purposes  of  the  development  will  be  attained  and  at  the  Bame 
time  protect  the  inter  the  community  and  the  individual. 

Buch  regulations  while  an  ex<  the  police  power  mu 

the  first  place,  mn-sirily  be  based  upon  careful  designing 


56  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

study  of  probable  use.  The  separation  between  various  districts 
should  not  be  made  too  evident,  in  order  to  avoid  the  creation 
of  a  prejudice  against  the  property  of  lower  value.  A  water 
course,  ridge  line,  woodland  strip,  park  or  other  topographical 
feature  may  be  employed  for  the  purpose.  The  various  resi- 
dential districts  should  preferably  be  contiguous  to  each  other, 
thereby  reducing  the  outlay  for  schools,  fire  protection  and, 
generally,  the  cost  of  utilities. 

The  more  expensive  houses  will  naturally  be  built  where  the 
values  will  be  affected  the  least  by  nuisances  from  the  plant,  such 
as  noise,  smoke  or  odors.  The  relative  advantages  of  exposure, 
prevailing  winds  and  similar  physical  factors  should  also  be  taken 
into  account  in  selecting  areas  adaptable  for  the  various  types 
of  houses. 

If  the  plant  is  adjacent,  its  relation  to  the  several  residential 
districts  deserves  serious  consideration.  The  proximity  of  the 
various  districts  to  the  main  lines  of  transit,  railroad  or  street 
railways,  or  both,  must  also  be  taken  into  account;  especially 
the  latter,  if  transportation  must  be  used  by  the  workers  to  reach 
the  plant.  In  making  this  study,  an  important  consideration  is 
the  time  required  to  walk  from  the  work  to  the  homes.  The 
higher  paid  employees  will  generally  be  found  willing  to  travel  a 
considerable  distance  to  obtain  a  more  attractive  home  and  en- 
vironment. The  growing  extensive  use  of  the  automobile  by 
the  well  paid  is  also  to  be  considered.  On  the  other  hand,  the 
unskilled  workman  prefers  to  live  as  close  to  the  plant  as  possible. 
It  is  preferable  that  the  walking  distance  from  the  houses  of  the 
the  lower  paid  men,  particularly  the  laborers,  should  not  exceed 
fifteen  minutes. 

Districting  is  an  essential  element  of  the  town  plan,  and  is  inti- 
mately related  to  the  arrangement,  width  and  character  of  the 
streets. 

Sub-division  of  Property. — Property  sub-division  embraces 
the  determination  of  the  shape,  size  and  proportions  of  the  lot 
and  block,  and  also  the  division  into  sub-areas,  according  to  the 
character  of  the  proposed  improvements. 

In  deciding  upon  the  best  use  to  which  the  various  parts  of  the 
area  may  be  assigned,  topography  and  physical  conditions  of 
the  ground  must  be  fully  taken  into  account.  These  affect  the 
grades  of  the  streets  and  cost  of  site  grading  for  buildings.  For 
instance,    detached    or   semi-detached    dwellings    can    be    built 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  57 

frequently  on  land  which  may  be  unduly  expensive  to  develop 
for  row  or  group  buildings,  or  for  business  blocks.  Extension 
to  adjoining  areas  of  suitable  ground  should  also  be  considered, 
in  locating  the  various  sub- districts,  particular  study  being  given 
to  the  probability  and  extent  of  such  future  developments. 

Where  conditions  are  such  as  to  make  immediate  improve- 
ments inadvisable  or  unduly  costly,  the  disposition  of  such  parts 
of  the  area  as  are  unsuitable  for  building  purposes  should  be 
determined  when  the  tract  is  districted.  These  conditions  may 
obtain  upon  account  of  inaccessibility,  rough  topography  with 
ledges  or  rock  strata  close  to  the  surface;  or  the  presence  of  low 
lying  ground,  swampy,  difficult  to  drain,  or  subject  to  flooding. 
Examples  of  making  such  areas  available  for  use  include  the 
filling  Of  low  land  from  surplus  street,  trench  and  cellar  excava- 
tions, or  by  hydraulic  fill  from  an  adjacent  river,  and  drainage  of 
swampy  ground  by  trenching. 

Allowance  per  House. — The  net  cost  of  the  land  required  for 
each  building  lot  and  improvements  must  necessarily  be  a 
governing  consideration  in  determining  the  size  of  the  lot.  This 
can  be  determined  only  after  all  allowances  and  deductions 
have  been  made  for  land  used  for  non-return  purposes  and  for 
that  which  is  unsuitable  for  improvements.  It  will  be  helpful, 
in  studying  the  problem,  to  form  an  idea  of  the  extent  and  rea- 
sons for  such  deductions. 

The  area  reserved  for  streets  and  alleys  will  vary  with  the 
topography  and  the  depth  and  length  of  the  blocks,  and  will 
depend  upon  the  depth  of  the  individual  lot  and  hence  upon  the 
type  and  grouping  of  the  proposed  buildings.  In  this  connection, 
the  statistics  of  eleven  typical  villages  planned  and  constructed 
by  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation,  as  given  in  Table  8, 
Chap.  Ill,  will  be  of  interest. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  percentage  of  the  area  devoted  to 
streets  and  alleys  in  these  projects  ranges  from  20.1  to  44.2 
per  cent.,  and  that  the  average  for  all  projects  was  26.8  per  cent. 
The  average  of  twenty  town  plans,  selected  as  typical  from  those 
made  by  the  United  States  Housing  Corporation  indicate  that 
25.5  per  cent,  of  the  area  was  set  aside  for  streets  and  alleys. 
Provision  must  also  be  made  for  parks  and  open  spaces,  and 
for  schools,  churches  and  other  public  and  semi-public  buildings. 
The  area  set  aside  for  these  purposes  will  vary  widely  depend- 
ing to  some  extent  upon  the  isolation  of  the  new  development 


58  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

and  upon  the  degree  to  which  facilities  for  recreation  and  diver- 
sion, especially  large  park  areas,  are  afforded  by  adjoining  com- 
munities. An  average  of  14.3  per  cent,  was  set  aside  for  such 
purposes  in  the  above  mentioned  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation 
towns,  while  about  9  per  cent,  was  reserved  in  the  towns  laid 
out  by  the  United  States  Housing  Corporation.  It  will  gener- 
ally be  found  advisable  to  set  aside  from  eight  to  twelve  per 
cent,  of  the  total  area  for  parks,  open  spaces,  playgrounds  and 
similar  purposes.  The  land  devoted  to  these  purposes  should 
not  be  considered  as  a  loss  of  saleable  property.  This  is  par- 
ticularly true,  when  land  unsuitable  for  building  purposes  is 
taken,  but  in  any  event,  this  cost  is  often  more  than  compen- 
sated for  by  the  enhancement  in  value  of  the  adjacent  property 
and  by  better  living  conditions. 

After  all  deductions  have  been  made  and  the  unsaleable  por- 
tion excluded,  from  60  to  65  per  cent,  of  the  original  area  of  the 
tract  will  constitute  the  saleable  lot  area  for  building  use.  This 
will  indicate,  in  general  terms,  the  extent  to  which  the  acreage 
cost  will  have  to  be  increased  to  cover  the  net  cost  of  the  land 
when  subdivided  into  building  lots. 

Densities. — The  number  of  dwellings  per  acre,  or  the  building 
density,  is  of  general  interest,  as  its  shows  the  degree  to  which  the 
property  can  be  occupied  and  affords  a  common  basis  of  compari- 
son. The  number  of  houses  per  acre  is  therefore  the  measure- 
ment of  the  saturation  of  the  plan  and  also  an  index  of  housing 
conditions.  This  is  best  expressed  as  the  number  of  families 
housed  per  gross  acre,  including  the  street  area,  but  excluding 
parks  and  open  spaces.  In  any  particular  case,  the  greater  the 
number  of  families  housed  per  acre,  the  less  the  cost  per  unit 
will  result  from  the  plan.  But  a  high  density,  brought  about 
by  crowding  a  large  number  of  families  on  small  lots  with  nar- 
row streets  and  lack  of  open  spaces,  is  poor  economy.  It  leads 
to  undesirable  living  conditions,  the  correction  or  prevention  of 
which  is  the  object  of  industrial  housing  and  a  necessity  of  our 
industrial  system. 

An  allotment  of  less  than  six  families  per  gross  acre,  unless 
the  topography  is  unusually  difficult,  or  an  especially  expensive 
development  is  planned,  will  generally  indicate  a  wasteful 
subdivision  of  the  land  and  a  lot  size  in  excess  of  ordinary  re- 
quirements. On  the  other  hand,  a  compactness  of  over  twelve 
families  per  gross  acre,  unless  some  are  housed  in  rows  or  apart- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  59 

ments,  will  indicate  too  intensive  use  of  the  land  and  unfavorable 
conditions,  on  account  of  insufficient  light,  air  and  open  space. 

Density  will  be  influenced  by  the  type  and  grouping  of  the 
houses,  the  width  of  the  street,  and  the  space  allowed  for  front 
yard,  back  yard,  and  between  houses,  rows  or  groups  of  buildings. 
A  comparison  of  building  densities  will  indicate  the  real  situation 
only  in  a  general  way,  as  the  disposition  of  the  open  space  pro- 
vided and  the  degree  in  which  it  is  useful  is  as  important  as  the 
amount.  Detached  houses,  placed  too  close  together,  may  afford 
a  greater  amount  of  open  space  than  row  houses,  but  the  side 
yard  space  may  not  be  useful  in  adding  to  the  convenience  and 
in  providing  necessary  light  and  air, — in  fact  it  may  be 
detrimental. 

When  the  cost  of  land  is  high,  the  number  of  families  housed 
per  acre  must  be  increased,  and  this  can  best  be  done  by  building 
row  houses,  apartments,  or  two  or  four-family  flat  houses, 
rather  than  by  crowding  detached  or  semi-detached  houses 
upon  small  lots.  Group  or  row  houses  may  frequently  present 
developments  equally  as  attractive  as  single  or  twin  houses,,  as 
shown  in  Chapter  X. 

Residential  Districts. — Dimensions  of  Blocks. — The  shape  and 
dimensions  of  residential  blocks  will  depend  partly  on  the 
influence  exerted  by  topography  and  traffic  requirements  upon 
street  locations  and  partly  upon  the  depth  which  is  best  suited 
or  required  for  the  houses  and  yards.  It  is  therefore  essential, 
in  laying  out  streets  and  thus  fixing  the  shape,  length  and  depth 
of  the  blocks,  that  they  be  located  in  such  manner  that  the  block 
can  be  subdivided  into  the  proper  size  lots  without  waste  of 
land.  Unless  there  is  an  important  reason,  such  as  allotment 
gardens  or  playgrounds  in  the  interior  of  the  block,  the  depth  of 
the  block  should  be  that  required  by  the  normal  depth  of  the 
lots,  with  an  allowance  for  an  alley  or  easement.. 

The  principal  dimension,  or  length  of  the  block,  will  then  be  on 
the  main  street  and,  if  advantage  of  the  topography  is  taken,  the 
ui<  >s1  favorable  and  economic  locations  for  buildings  will  be  afforded. 
In  this  way,  the  necessity  for  building  on  the  cross  streets,  which 
will  be  undesirable  and  expensive  if  their  grades  are  excessive, 
will  be  avoided  and  the  cost  of  utilities  will  be  reduced.  The 
layout  of  Buckman  Village  (see  Fig.  1)  is  a  good  example  of 
this  arrangement. 

The  length  of  the  block  will  be  determined  by  the  frequency 


60 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


BLOCK      PL AN 

FiQ.  1. — Plan  of  the  Buekman  Village  Project  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Cor- 
poration at  Chester,  Pa, 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  61 

with  which  cross  streets  must  be  located,  in  conformity  with  the 
traffic  or  topographical  requirements.  The  minimum  and  maxi- 
mum lengths  will  be  regulated  by  economical  considerations  and 
by  that  of  convenience  of  access.  A  block  length  of  from  600 
to  800  feet  will  be  found  desirable,  when  topographic  con- 
ditions permit.  If  the  blocks  are  shorter,  the  area  of  the 
land  taken  for  street  purposes,  and  hence  the  cost  of  lots,  will  be 
increased,  as  will  be  the  cost  of  street  improvements  and  utility 
installations.  If  the  blocks  are  too  long,  access  from  one  main 
street  to  another  becomes  inconvenient  and  the  street  system 
will  fail  in  one  of  its  main  requisites,  that  of  affording  reasonably 
good  and  convenient  access  to  and  from  the  houses. 

When  long  blocks  are  used  of  necessity,  as  in  hillside  locations, 
where  cross  streets  cannot  be  provided  at  sufficient  intervals  on 
account  of  topographical  difficulties  and  the  cost  of  improvements, 
the  situation  may  in  part  be  relieved,  as  far  as  pedestrians  are 
concerned,  by  providing  cross  walks,  with  flights  of  steps  where 
necessary,  leading  across  the  block  from  one  street  to  the  other. 
An  example  of  this  solution  is  shown  in  the  plan  of  Loveland 
Farms,  Fig.  2. 

There  is  a  further  objection  to  abnormally  long  blocks,  in  that 
the  appearance  is  likely  to  become  monotonous,  particularly  if 
the  streets  are  straight,  and  the  houses  are  small  and  located 
close  to  the  street  line.  Cross  streets,  particularly  where  the 
intersections  are  carefully  planned,  both  with  regard  to  the 
streets  themselves  and  to  the  grouping  of  the  houses  at  the 
intersections,  add  interest  and  variety  and  hence  enhance  the 
attractiveness.  This  will  be  observable  in  the  illustration  (see 
Fig.  43)  of  the  Yorkship  Village  project  built  by  the  Emergency 
Fleet  Corporation  at  Camden,  N.  J.  Attractive  results  were 
obtained  by  providing  a  small  park  space  at  an  intersection  and 
by  effective  grouping  of  the  buildings  which  are  of  the  row  type. 

The  length  of  the  block,  as  well  as  the  size  and  shape  of  the 
lots,  should  be  adapted  to  the  character  of  the  residential  dis- 
trict. Where  the  building  density  is  low,  as  it  will  be  in  the 
better  class  residential  districts,  the  block  lengths  may  be  in- 
creased  with  less  likelihood  of  congestion   and   inconvenience. 

In  districting  residence  areas  in  accordance  with  the  grades  of 
houses,  three  general  types  will  be  considered: 

(a)  The  more  expensive  detached  and  semi-detached  houses,  usu- 
ally occupied  by  the  salaried  employees  and  the  higher  paid  skilled 


62 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


It  ^S 

!       !  |      IT        "O  w^y  v 


\  c 


\  fit  t^^'YAV-^/* 


# 


Fig.  2. — Plan  of  the  Loveland  Farms  Development  of  the  Buckeye  Land 
Company  (Youngstown  Sheet  &  Tube  Company)  at  Youngstown,  Oliio,  illustrat- 
ing the  development  of  a  hillside  site  with  contour  streets. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  63 

mechanics  and  clerical  force,  which  will  generally  require  larger  lots 
than  the  other  types. 

(b)  Two  and  four-family  houses  and  the  better  class  of  row  houses, 
where  the  requirements  of  the  prospective  occupants  and  the  antici- 
pated returns  will  warrant  a  lot  somewhat  in  excess  of  the  minimum. 

(c)  Row  and  group  houses,  where  compactness  is  desirable,  in  order 
to  reduce  the  cost  of  land  and  improvements. 

There  may  be  a  further  subdivision  of  the  area  according  to 
the  proposed  disposition  of  the  property.  For  instance  it  may 
be  found  desirable  to  group  together  houses  to  be  sold,  similarly 
those  to  be  rented  and  again  those  to  be  handled  upon  a  coopera- 
tive plan.  It  may  further  be  desirable  to  segregate  hotels, 
boarding  houses  and  apartments. 

Residence  Lots. — The  residential  lot  is  the  unit  of  the  town 
plan,  and  much  depends,  both  as  to  the  effectiveness  of  housing 
and  the  living  conditions  which  will  be  established,  upon  pro- 
viding building  lots  of  suitable  size  and  shape.  Bad  housing 
has  been  due  frequently  to  wasteful  use  of  land  in  the  original 
subdivision  of  the  property,  which  has  laid  a  heavy  burden  of 
increased  cost  upon  the  development. 

If  the  lots  are  too  deep,  the  property  at  the  rear  is  wasted  and 
there  is  a  natural  tendency  to  make  the  lots  narrow  and  to  fail 
to  provide  sufficient  space  between  houses,  thus  preventing 
proper  living  conditions.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  lots  are  of 
insufficient  depth,  the  frontage  must  be  necessarily  increased, 
and  this,  as  will  be  hereafter  demonstrated,  will  greatly  increase 
the  cost  of  street  improvements  and  utility  installation. 

The  size  and  proportions  of  the  lot  will  depend  upon  a  number 
of  factors  but  should  meet  certain  minimum  conditions.  The 
general  requirements  should  be  studied  and  decided  upon  be- 
fore the  street  layout  is  made;  and  the  subdivision  of  the 
property  in  the  block  should  conform  thereto  as  closely  as  to- 
pography and  other  factors  influencing  the  location  of  streets 
will  permit.     The  dimensions  will  be  affected  by  the  following: 

(«)  The  cost  of  land. 

(b)  The  type  and  dimensions  of  the  house,  the  location  of  the  house 
on  the  lot,  and  the  grouping  of  the  house  units. 

(c)  The  required  set-hack  in  the  front  and  the  distance  back  of  the 
houses,  to  answer  the  requirements  of  light,  air  and  open  space. 

(rf)  The  required  clearance  between  the  sides  of  houses  or  the  ends 
of  rows  of  houses. 


64  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

(e)  Rear  yard  requirements  for  household  purposes,  for  kitchen 
gardens  and  for  garages. 

(/)  The  cost  of  street  improvements  and  utilities. 

(g)  The  cost  of  lot  improvements,  such  as  grading,  house  walks, 
planting,  fences  and  hedges. 

Cost  of  Land. — The  influence  of  the  cost  of  land  upon  the  size 
of  lot,  and  its  relation  to  the  housing  problem  has  hitherto  been 
mentioned,  and  attention  called  to  the  relation  between  the  gross 
and  the  net  saleable  acreage.  Even  where  land  in  acreage 
is  comparatively  cheap,  much  of  it  may  be  unsuitable  for  build- 
ing, on  account  of  soil  or  foundation  conditions,  or  by  reason  of 
topography.  After  deductions  have  been  made  for  the  street 
area,  open  spaces,  and  for  special  purposes,  the  saleable  portion 
will  be  considerably  less  than  the  general  average  of  60  per  cent, 
of  the  gross  area.  This  condition  will  increase  the  cost  of  the 
usable  land. 

The  Sun  Village  development  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corpora- 
tion was  located  on  expensive  land  within  the  City  of  Chester 
and  adjoining  the  built-up  section.  Although  nearly  twenty-two 
families  were  housed  per  net  acre  of  block  area  (exclusive  of  all 
streets  and  open  spaces  and  undeveloped  territory  included  with 
the  tract),  the  number  of  families  housed  per  gross  area  of  the 
developed  tract  was  about  twelve  families  per  acre.  About 
86  per  cent,  of  the  dwellings  were  of  the  row  type,  the  balance 
being  semi-detached  houses.  Although  the  individual  lots 
generally  have  20  feet  frontage  and  75  feet  depth,  or  an  area  of 
about  1500  square  feet,  the  actual  average  area  of  the  lots,  due 
to  loss  of  land  chiefly  on  account  of  topographical  reasons,  is  in 
excess  of  2,000  square  feet.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that 
topographical  features  frequently  render  it  impossible  to  develop 
the  building  intensity  of  the  standard  block. 

Where  land  values  are  high,  the  type  and  dimensions  of  the 
house  will  necessarily  have  to  be  subordinated  to  the  economic 
size  and  dimensions  of  the  lot.  This  will  ordinarily  lead  to  the 
adoption  of  row  houses  built  on  comparatively  shallow  lots.  The 
appearance  of  overcrowding  will  be  avoided  by  providing  streets 
of  ample  width,  and  by  allowing  a  moderate  set-back  from  the 
street  line  to  the  house  front. 

The  effects  of  the  size  of  the  lot  on  saleability  must  fully  be 
taken  into  account.  Preferences  and  requirements  in  regard  to 
size  of  lots  vary  widely,  and  are  largely  dependent  on  local  custom 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  65 

and  the  habits  of  different  classes.  If  the  lots  are  smaller  than 
the  usual  custom  of  the  locality,  the  full  value  of  the  improved 
property  may  not  be  realized.  The  size  of  the  lot  must  therefore 
be  adjusted  to  conform  to  the  purchasing  power  and  the  pre- 
ferences of  the  people  for  whom  homes  are  built. 

Requirements  of  House. — The  type  and  character  of  the  house, 
particularly  the  number,  size  and  arrangement  of  the  rooms, 
will  to  a  great  extent  determine  the  size  and  proportions  of  the 
lot.  These  must  be  fixed  to  meet  the  requirements  of  frontage 
and  depth  of  the  building  in  such  manner  as  to  provide  sufficient 
open  spaces  about  the  building. 

Row  dwellings  will  require  from  16  to  20  feet,  semi-detached 
dwellings  from  20  to  25  feet  and  detached  dwellings  from  25  to 
30  feet  of  house  frontage. 

Requirements  of  Light,  Air  and  Access. — Reasonably  good  hous- 
ing standards  command  the  observance  of  the  following  minimum 
requirements : 

The  area  of  the  lot  in  no  event  should  be  less  than  1,000  square 
feet,  and  should  preferably  be  at  least  1,500  square  feet.  The 
distance  between  houses  should  not  be  less  than  16  feet  for  two- 
story  dwellings,  and  it  is  preferable  to  make  the  side  yard  space 
at  least  20  feet.  For  higher  buildings,  this  distance  should  be 
proportionally  increased.  The  foregoing  minimum  spacings 
would  apply  also  to  the  distance  between  the  ends  of  row  houses, 
although  20  or  25  feet  is  preferable  in  such  cases. 

The  distance  between  fronts  of  houses  should  not  be  less  than 
50  feet,  and  60  feet  is  preferable.  There  should  be  a  space  in  the 
rear  of  at  least  50  feet  between  houses.  The  foregoing  distances 
should  be  increased  if  the  dwellings  are  to  be  of  more  than  two 
stories.  If  garages  be  used  the  depth  of  rear  yards  should  be 
not  less  than  35  to  40  feet.  A  set-back  from  the  street  line  to  the 
fronts  of  the  houses  of  10  to  20  feet  is  generally  desirable,  as  it 
increases  the  distance  between  the  fronts  of  the  houses,  affords 
room  for  porches,  adds  to  privacy  and  provides  desirable  open 
space. 

Average  practice  in  planning  industrial  residential  develop- 
ments is  in  the  direction  of  moderately  shallow  lots;  street 
widths  of  50  feet,  set-back  ranging  from  10  to  15  feet,  with  the 
minor  cross  streets  40  feet  in  width.  With  20-foot  fronts,  this 
will  allow  a  building  density  of  about  12  families  per  gross  acre, 
including  the  street  and  sidewalk  area,  but  not  including  allow- 

5 


66  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

ances  for  parks  or  special  purposes.  If  further  economy  in  the 
use  of  land  is  necessary,  it  should  be  obtained  by  decreasing  the 
frontage  or  by  building  two-family  or  four-family  flats. 

In  determining  the  amount  of  set-back,  the  width  of  the  street 
and  that  of  the  planting  space  in  the  street  area  should  be  taken 
into  account.  Where  the  houses  are  to  be  rented  and  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  prospective  tenant  do  not  warrant 
the  expectations  that  they  will  maintain  attractive  yards,  con- 
sideration should  be  given  to  increasing  the  planting  space  in 
the  streets,  and  decreasing  the  set-back  to  the  minimum  re- 
quired for  the  front  porch.  By  this  means  control  over  street 
appearance  may  be  maintained. 

Lot  Improvements. — The  various  items  required  in  the  improve- 
ment of  the  lot,  including  grading,  seeding,  planting  and  fences 
or  hedges,  are  all  related  to  the  size  of  the  lot.  The  cost  of  lot 
improvements  will  be  high  where  the  topography  is  broken, 
and  considerable  grading  is  required,  especially  where  slopes 
must  be  terraced,  retaining  walls  built,  or  filling  of  low  land 
is  required. 

Under  some  conditions  the  aggregate  cost  of  these  items  may 
well  have  an  influence  on  the  size  of  the  lots  to  be  provided.  A 
decision  must  also  be  reached  regarding  the  provision  of  rear 
yard  gardens  or  allotment  gardens.  Where  kitchen  gardens  are 
provided,  they  should  be  of  moderate  size  and  may  range  from 
500  to  1000  square  feet  in  area,  unless  the  land  is  unusually 
steep  or  cannot  be  used  to  advantage  for  more  essential  purposes. 

Manufacturing  Districts. — The  manufacturing  or  industrial 
district  will  be  located  on  the  most  level  ground  available  and  in 
proximity  to  the  existing  or  projected  railroad  and  transportation 
lines.  Where  there  is  latitude  in  choice,  consideration"  should 
be  given  to  the  direction  of  the  prevailing  winds,  in  order  to 
minimize  the  smoke  nuisance.  Such  districts  may  in  certain 
cases,  be  divided  or  zoned  into  light  and  heavy  manufacturing; 
objectionable  trades  or  industries  being  thus  restricted  to  certain 
areas. 

While  a  definite  separation  is  desired  between  the  residential 
and  the  industrial  or  majmiaiituiing_districts,  this  result  should 
not  be  obtained  at  the  expense  of  cojiyenience_of.  access  to  and 
from  the  homes  of  the  workmen.  A  water  course,  a  wooded  park, 
a  special  street,  a  railroad,  or  other  feature  of  the  plan  may  form 
the  line  of  separation. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  67 

In  planning  the  village  of  East  Valley  Forge  (See  Fig.  4)  a 
30-foot  drive  was  provided  along  the  boundary  of  the  area  set 
aside  for  manufacturing  purposes.  This  street  has  a  sidewalk 
on  but  one  side,  and  the  adjoining  property  is  so  subdivided 
that  only  the  rear  yards  of  dwellings  front  thereon.  The  plan 
of  the  town  of  Ojibway  provides  for  a  business  street  one  hun- 
dred feet  in  width  separating  the  steel  plant  from  the  town  (see 
Fig.    3). 

In  large  communities,  it  may  be  necessary  to  zone  or  sub- 
divide the  commercial  area  into  wholesale  and  retail,  or  ware- 
house and  small  store  district. 

Commercial  Districts. — The  commercial  or  business  district 
will  ordinarily  be  located  with  reference  first  to  the  projected 
system  of  arterial  streets;  second,  to  accessibility  to  the  residen- 
tial  district;  and  third,  to  the jnoyement  of  traffic,  from  the 
manufacturing  plants,  and  adjoining  communities.  Due  regard 
must  also  be  given  to  the  topography,  which  affects  the  grades 
of  streets,  and  the  cost  of  the  erection  of  buildings.  Where 
railroad  sidings  can  be  located  within  easy  hauling  distance  of 
the  commercial  district,  the  cost  of  handling  merchandise  will 
be  a  minimum.  It  may  even  be  feasible,  if  grade  crossings 
and  interference  with  the  street  system  can  be  avoided,  to 
locate  a  siding  directly  in  the  rear  of  the  business  properties, 
and  thus  eliminate  truck  hauling  entirely. 

The  required  area  for  the  commercial  district  can  be  approxi- 
mated on  the  assumption  that  about  one  acre  will  be  required 
for  stores  and  business  purposes  for  each  2500  inhabitants.  The 
length  of  the  block  in  the  commercial  district  should  generally 
be  shorter  than  that  recommended  for  residential  blocks.  In 
such  districts,  a  block  length  of  about  400  feet  will  generally  be 
found  to  be  satisfactory.  Short  blocks  will  provide  better 
facilities  for  traffic  and  decrease  the  fire  risk.  The  additional 
cost  will  be  in  part  covered  by  the  increased  value  of  corner 
properties  for  business  purposes.  Where  there  is  to  be  a  con- 
centration of  large  business  establishments  in  the  block,  the  depth 
of  the  lots  should  be  such  as  to  make  ample  provision  for  a 
service  court  in  the  rear  of  the  buildings,  in  order  to  relieve  con- 
gestion on  the  streets. 

In  minor  developments,  the  community  or  civic  center  and  the 
business  district  may  be  merged,  as  has  often  occured  in  small 
communities,  where  the  joint  coTintry  store  and  the  post  office 


68 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


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DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN 


69 


70 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


have  formed  the  nucleus  of  the  growing  business  and  public  social 
life  of  the  residents.  In  larger  towns,  a  more  interesting  and 
attractive  plan  can  be  developed  by  separating  these  features, 
but  in  such  cases  they  should  be  located  with  relation  to  each 
other,  and  connected  by  adequate  streets. 

As  the  development  of  the  business  section  will  preferably  and 
generally  be  left  in  the  hands  of  individuals,  it  will  follow,  rather 
than  be  contemporaneous  with  the  development  of  the  remainder 
of  the  town.  It  will  be  both  advantageous  and  possible  for  the 
management  of  the  town  to  arrange  for  the  use  of  certain  prop- 
erty, subject  to  restrictions  regarding  the  architectural  appear- 
ance of  the  buildings.  Furthermore,  it  will  generally  be  good 
business  to  erect  some  store  buildings,  possibly  in  conjunction 
with  apartments,  for  rental,  with  the  plan  of  later  selling  the 
properties  after  the  business  concerns  have  become  established. 
In  such  ways  the  development  of  the  town  can  be,  in  a  measure, 


Table.  9. — List  of  Kind  and  Number  of  Business  Enterprises  in 
Average  Community 


Kind  of  Enterprise 


Number 


Bakeries 

Barber  shops 

Boot  &  shoe  stores 

Bowling  alleys 

Butcher  market 

Butter  &  creamery  stores 

Drug  stores 

Fruit  stands 

Garages  (public) 

General  stores  (groceries  &  dry  goods) 

Haberdasheries 

Hardware  stores 

Hotels 

Ice  cream  and  confectionery  stores.  . 

Laundries 

Milliners 

Printing  establishments 

Refrigerating  plant 

Restaurants 

Shoe  repair  shops 

Stationery  stores 

Tailor  shops 

Undertaking  establishments 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  71 

controlled,  and  at  the  same  time  progress  in  such  a  way  that 
the  buildings  will  be  adapted  to  enhance  the  appearance  of  the 
ultimate  arrangement. 

The  number  and  variety  of  enterprises,  which  will  be  required 
in  any  community  will  vary  through  a  wide  range,  and  will 
depend  to  a  great  extent  upon  the  comparative  isolation  of  the 
town,  and  its  dependence  on  larger  nearby  communities.  The 
preceding  table  gives  a  list  of  the  kind  and  probable  number  of 
different  business  enterprises  that  may  well  be  required  in  an 
average  community  of  10,000  people,  assuming  that  the  town  is 
comparatively  isolated  and  inhabitated  by  people  of  average  pur- 
chasing power.  Some  of  the  enterprises,  as  bakeries  and  grocery 
stores,  may  frequently  be  combined  in  the  same  business. 

Civic  Center. — In  order  that  the  town  may  have  a  pleasing, 
convenient  and  appropriate  center  for  its  public  activities,  it 
will  usually  be  found  desirable,  unless  the  town  is~exceptionally 
large,  to  group  public  and  semi-public  buildings  together.  The 
elements  of  this  group  may  well  include  town  hall,  post  office, 
central  school,  library,  theatre  or  public  hall,  churches,  hotels 
and  community  club  buildings.  By  assembling  these  buildings 
together,  or  such  of  them  as  it  is  necessary  to  provide,  better 
architectural  treatment  can  be  given,  particularly  where  a  suit- 
able site  is  available.  The  location,  grouping  and  architecture 
of  the  public  and  semi-public  buildings  will  often  largely  be  the 
measure  of  the  interest,  attractiveness  and  convenience  of  the 
plan. 

Where  a  complete  and  independent  town  is  to  be  developed, 
the  civic  center  may  well  be  separated  from  the  general  commer- 
cial or  store  district.  However,  convenience  may  require  the 
nearby  location  of  small  stores  or  restaurants  to  take  care  of  the 
neighborhood  and  family  demands.  The  predominating  req- 
uisites of  the  commercial  district' — utility  and  compactness — 
are  somewhat  different  from  those  of  the  civic  center — spacious- 
ness, beauty  and  convenience — and  it  will  therefore  be  found 
difficult  to  combine  the  two. 

The  civic  center  should  be  reasonably  convenient  to  most  of 
the  residential  subdivisions  and  to  the  main  thoroughfare  of  the 
town.  The  requirements  of  traffic,  particularly  directness,  are 
not  so  important  that  they  cannot  be  subordinated  to  a  reason- 
able extent,  in  order  that  the  natural  features  of  the  site  may  be 
made  available  in  locating  and  laying  out  the  center.     A  park- 


72  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

way,  however,  located  and  planned  for  pleasure  traffic,  may  be 
used  in  connection  with  the  civic  center,  and  the  latter,  made  one 
of  the  prominent,  dominating  features  of  a  formally  organized 
plan.  If  due  regard  be  paid  to  the  topographical  require- 
ments, effective  landscape  and  architectural  features  may-Jaa_ 
obtained. 

It  is  not  necessary,  and  generally  not  advisable  tolocate  a  main 
artery,  particularly  where  it  carries  heavy  commercial  traffic, 
passing  through  a  civic  or  community  center.  Frequently  the 
civic  center  is  developed  about  a  park  or  plaza,  the  open  space 
affording  the  necessary  distance,  so  desirable  for  interesting  and 
attractive  views.  It  may  be  advantageous,  where  the  buildings 
of  the  civic  center  group  are  located  about  a  square  or  open 
space,  to  utilize  a  main  thoroughfare  as  one  of  the  sides  of  the 
square,  or  to  provide  a  broad  avenue  leading  from  the  square  to 
the  main  thoroughfare. 

The  civic  center  should  be  planned  on  generous  lines,  even 
though  not  completely  developed  immediately,  and  the  plans 
should  provide  for  the  requirements  of  the  future  as  to  the  size, 
character,  and  architectural  treatment  of  the  necessary  buildings. 

Parks  and  Parkways. — -Well  designed  parks  are  essen- 
tial to  the  town  plan.  They  provide  places  of  recreation ; 
contribute  to  the  beautification  of  the  town;  improve  living 
conditions,  by  affording  light,  air  and  open  space,  and  furnish 
interesting  drives  for  pleasure  travel.  The  cost  of  land  devoted 
to  parks  will  often  to  a  great  extent  be  met  by  the  increased 
valuation  of  the  adjoining  residential  property.  If  a  park  system 
is  definitely  planned  and  the  properties  required  are  reserved, 
prior  to  the  development  of  the  surrounding  territory,  the  cost 
will  be  moderate  and  desirable  results  may  be  obtained  by 
selecting  land  properly  located  with  regard  to  the  highway 
system.  Parks  must  be  accessible  to  the  people,  or  they  will 
not  be  used,  and  the  park  system  should  therefore  be  planned 
with  proper  relation  to  the  highway  system. 

For  the  present  purpose,  two  types  of  parks  will  be  discussed. 
The  first  type  consists  of  urban  parks  of  relatively  small  area, 
located  within  the  developed  parts  of  the  town,  and  generally 
planned  in  a  formal  manner  and  highly  improved.  The  second 
type  consists  of  natural  parks,  generally  located  on  the  outskirts 
of  the  town,  with  improvements  chiefly  to  provide  access  and  to 
develop  natural  beauty  and  scenic  features. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  73 

Area  Required. — The  amount  of  area  devoted  to  parks  will 
depend  upon  the  cost  of  the  land  and  the  character  of  the  resi- 
dential districts  they  are  to  serve.  Where  row  houses  on  com- 
paratively small  lots  predominate,  there  should  be  liberal 
provision  for  urban  parks,  in  order  to  provide  the  necessary  open 
space.  Congestion  demands  parks  as  a  necessity  rather  than 
primarily  as  a  means  of  beautification. 

In  residential  districts  of  the  most  expensive  type,  parks  are 
added  for  the  purpose  of  beautification  and  increasing  the 
attractiveness  of  the  district.  Very  often  it  is  preferable,  not 
only  as  an  economy  of  construction  and  maintenance,  but  also 
as  a  desirable  effect  secured,  to  reduce  the  width  of  the  streets 
and  depth  of  lots  and  combine  the  land  area  saved  into  small 
park  areas. 

An  analysis  of  the  areas  in  the  villages,  planned  by  the  Fleet 
Corporation  and  the  United  States  Housing  Corporation  indi- 
cates 13  per  cent,  and  10  per  cent,  respectively,  of  the  developed 
area,  dedicated  to  school,  recreational  and  community  purposes. 

The  areas  set  aside  for  paries  and  other  open  spaces  should 
range  from  5  to  10  per  cent,  of  the  total  area.  This  includes 
small  parks  at  street  intersections  and  the  civic  center. 

The  necessity  for  the  more  extensive  natural  parks,  lying 
bej^ond  the  built-up  districts,  depends  very  largely  upon  the 
size  and  character  of  the  development  and  the  cost  and  avail- 
ability of  land.  They  are  not  to  be  regarded  as  so  essential  to 
good  living  or  the  well  being  of  the  community,  as  urban  parks, 
open  spaces  and  playgrounds  but  they  are  highly  desirable  as 
they  supplement  such  features  and  help  to  make  the  town  more 
attractive  and  increase  the  feeling  of  contentment  and  attach- 
ment of  the  residents  to  the  town  and  promote  health,  comfort 
and  pleasure  of  the  people.  It  is  one  of  the  ways  of  giving  char- 
acter and  individuality  to  a  town,  without  which  it  may  be 
simply  a  monotonous  place  in  which  to  five.  Provided  road- 
ways be  constructed  to  make  the  park  accessible,  rough  and 
broken  topography,  that  would  be  unsuitable  for  building  pur- 
poses, may  be  utilized  to  advantage  for  such  natural  parks. 

Location. — It  will  generally  be  advantageous,  to  industrial 
communities,  to  have  a  number  of  small  urban  parks  readily 
accessible  to  various  parts  of  the  town,  rather  than  one  large 
one.  While  the  latter  maybe  more  pretentious  and  more  sus- 
ceptible of  improvement,  it  will   not  properly  serve  the  needs 


74  •  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSISU 

of  the  residents.  Natural  parks,  on  the  other  hand,  should  be  of 
comparatively  large  area  in  one  unit.  Otherwise  the  appearance 
of  natural  beauty  cannot  be  carried  out. 

The  completely  developed  plan  will  ordinarily  include  the 
following: 

A  parked  area  in  connection  with,  and  as  part  of,  the  civic  or 
community  center; 

A  small  park  or  square  in  connection  with  the  commercial  or 
business  district;  such  parks,  to  be  developed  primarily  to  relieve 
congestion  and  to  provide  a  breathing  space  in  the  busy  section  of 
the  town; 

A  park  area  adjoining  the  industrial  plant,  providing  land  is 
available,  in  order  to  afford  convenient  separation  between  the  town 
and  the  plant  and  for  the  use  of  the  employees  during  the  lunch 
hour;  parks  of  this  kind  are  frequently  placed  under  the  direction 
and  control  of  the  plant  management; 

Local  parks  in  the  various  residential  districts,  placed  with  reference 
to  the  main  street  system  and  the  convenience  of  the  residents; 

Small  park  areas  at  street  intersections,  as  elements  of  the  land- 
scape treatment  and  to  form  islands  for  the  regulation  and  diversion 
of  the  flow  of  traffic; 

Parkways  and  boulevards,  which  include  wide  and  specially  de- 
signed streets,  with  park  areas  either  at  each  side  or  in  the  center, 
or  both.  These  will  form  an  integral  part  of  the  main  highway  sys- 
tem and  frequently  connect  the  park  or  plaza  of  the  civic  center  and 
some  of  the  playgrounds  with  a  larger  park  area  or  other  important 
and  prominent  points  of  interest. 

The  reservation  of  strips  of  land  along  ravines  and  rivers  and 
of  low-lying  land  along  small  watercourses  for  park  purposes 
will  often  utilize  property  that  is  unsuitable  or  expensive  for 
building  purposes,  and,  at  the  same  time  serve,  after  develop- 
ment, as  a  natural  beauty  spot  for  recreation  and  public  use. 
High  ground,  particularly  if  it  overlooks  a  lake  or  river  or  affords 
a  far-reaching  view  of  the  surrounding  territory,  will  add  much 
to  the  attractiveness  and  the  charm  of  the  park.  Good  examples 
of  the  foregoing  are  the  reservation  of  the  bottom  land  for  park 
purposes  in  the  Buckman  Development  at  Chester,  Pa.,  and  the 
setting  aside  of  a  grove  of  trees  on  a  bluff  overlooking  the  Piscata- 
qua  River,  in  Portsmouth  Development,  both  of  the  Emergency 
Fleet  Corporation  (Fig.  1  and  5). 


DEVEWPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN 


75 


Improvements.— Improvement  of  small  parks  in  the  interior  of  a 
development  should  be  undertaken  at  the  time  the  houses  are 
erected,  in  order  that  the  tracts  may  have  a  finished  appearance 


BLOCK      P  LAN    ^ 


Fig.  5.— Plan  of  the  Atlantic  Heights  Project  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Cor- 
poration at  Portsmouth,  N.  H.  The  area  between  the  Piscataqua  River  and 
the  village  is  reserved  for  park  purposes. 

and  relieve  the  feeling  of  newness  and  incompleteness  that 
detracts  from  the  appearance  of  a  recently  built  town.  A  natural 
park  may  with  advantage  be  developed  gradually. 

The  drives  and  walks  through  parks  in  the  built-up  areas  of  the 


76  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

town  should  be  laid  out,  not  with  the  idea  of  having  a  symmetrical 
and  interesting  plan  on  paper,  as  is  so  often  the  case ;  but  in  such 
manner  as  will  best  serve  convenience  of  traffic,  necessary  in 
parks  adjoining  the  business  center  and  in  the  smaller  parks  laid 
out  in  connection  with  the  arterial  street  system.  Curved  walks 
should  be  avoided  when  their  use  may  lead  to  the  inconvenience 
and  annoyance  of  the  busy  pedestrian ;  curvature  should  therefore 
be  used  with  moderation  unless  there  is  clear  necessity  by 
reason  of  topography. 

The  drives  in  natural  parks  will  be  used  largely  for  pleasure 
traffic,  and  directness,  grade  and  alignment,  while  they  should 
be  kept  within  reasonable  limits,  may  be  subordinated  to  the 
requirements  of  topography,  economy  of  development,  or  scenic 
beauty.  In  developing  such  larger  parks,  it  is  desirable  that 
separate  ways  be  provided  for  vehicle  and  pedestrian  travel. 
Care  should  be  exercised  to  obviate  the  possibility  of  accident, 
particularly  in  providing  clear  views  at  points  where  pedestrian 
and  vehicle  travel  cross.  Walks  and  paths  should  be  laid  out  so 
that  the  public  may  reach  various  points  of  interest  by  following 
attractive  and  interesting  routes  of  natural  beauty. 

Playgrounds.— The  necessity  for  public  playgrounds,  is  no 
longer  a  question — the  movement  has  passed  beyond  the  experi- 
mental stage.  As  evidence  of  their  extensive  adoption,  it  was 
reported  that  in  the  summer  of  1917,  52  cities  had  established 
playground  work,  this  being  an  increase  of  21  per  cent,  over  the 
number  that  had  done  so  the  previous  year.  There  is  further 
a  tendency  to  adopt  yearj^£Ojrnd^orjeration,  with  a  permanently 
employed  supervising  force.  Duringthe  year  ending  November, 
1917,  481  cities  reported  a  total  of  3,944  playgrounds  and  neigh- 
borhood recreation  centers,  which  were  operated  by  regularly 
employed  supervisors  and  teachers.  The  method  of  control 
varied,  about  60  per  cent,  being  operated  by  the  municipality, 
and  the  balance  by  private  and  civic  associations. 

Location  and  Area. — Playgrounds  should  be  located  so  that 
children  can  reach  them  with  a  walk  of  not  more  than  one-half 
mile.  Small  open  spaces,  perhaps  in  the  interior  of  the  block, 
should  be  provided  for  the  very  small  children.  Playgrounds 
should  be  provided  at  all  scho.olhouses,  particularly  for  the  pri- 
mary grades,  and  should  be  serviceable  not  only  during  the 
school  hours  but  also  at  other  periods.  Particular  care  should 
be  taken  in  locating  playgrounds,  not  only  that  they  be  readily 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  77 

accessible  to  the  area  which  they  are  to  servo,  but  also  that 
dangerous  street  and  railroad  crossings  be  avoided  in  reaching 
them. 

The  study  of  the  playgrounds  of  41  cities,  ranging  from  60,000 
to  1,700,000  inhabitants,  indicates  a  present  average  provision 
of  one  acre  of  playground  for  every  4,000  people.  It  is  considered 
good  practice  to  allow  at  least  two  acres  of  playground  for  every 
1,000  children. 

Improvements. — The  playground  area  should  be  graded,  to 
provide  good  drainage  and  to  permit  full  opportunity  for  play 
and  games.  Experience  in  construction,  indicates  that  the  best 
general  plan  of  grading  is  to  provide  a  ground  slope  from  a  central 
point,  with  a  grade  of  about  4  inches  per  100  feet.  Wading 
pools  and  sandboxes  should  be  located  so  that  the  ground  will 
drain  away  from  them  in  every  direction. 

If  the  area  is  sufficient  to  avoid  concentration  in  play,  the 
surface  may  be  in  lawn.  A  gravel  surface  will  also  be  found  desir- 
able for  some  areas;  tanbark — a  layer  about  two  inches  in 
depth — has  at  times  been  used  and  found  satisfactory,  but 
requires  replacement  every  two  years.  The  play  ground  should 
be  fenced,  for  which  purpose  wire  fencing,  with  substantial  pipe 
or  wooden  posts,  is  recommended.  The  appearance  may  be 
improved  by  planting  a  hedge  just  inside  the  fence.  In  addition 
to  the  regular  playground  apparatus,  trees,  shrubbery,  benches, 
fountains,  comfort  stations  and  trash  receptacles  should  be 
provided. 

Apparatus  should  be  arranged  at  one  end  of  the  grounds  or 
about  the  edges,  to  provide  the  largest  possible  space  for  un- 
hampered play.  It  is  also  well  to  provide  for  segregation  of 
children  by  ages.  There  should  be  a  periodic  and  responsible  in- 
spection of  the  equipment  and  apparatus  at  frequent  intervals 
in  order  to  avoid  the  possibility  of  accident. 

Athletic  Fields. — Athletic  fields,  with  facilities  for  baseball, 
football,  tennis  and  other  outdoor  sports,  are  essential  for  the 
older  boys  and  men.  Plans  for  large  industrial  developments 
generally  make  adequate  provision  for  such  requirements.  It  is 
found  to  be  an  important  factor  in  building  up  community  spirit 
and  the  feeling  of  attachment  by  the  residents  for  the  town. 
How  far  and  to  what  extent  the  improvements  and  facilities 
should  be  carried  by  the  builder  of  the  project  or  left  to  the 
initiative  of  the  community  is  a  question.     Interest  may  possibly 


78  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

be  stimulated  by  active  participation  in  providing  the  facilities, 
but  in  any  event  it  will  be  necessary  to  reserve  a  suitable  area 
in  the  original  plans  and  to  do  the  preliminary  work  of  grading 
and  drainage. 

While  not  absolutely  necessary,  a  recreation  building  or  club- 
house, provided  with  showers,  lockers  and  gymnasium  apparatus, 
will  be  found  highly  desirable;  particularly  if  the  town  is  of  suffi- 
cient size,  as  to  warrant  the  expenditure.  Such  a  feature  can  be 
made  self-sustaining  if  properly  managed  and  community  interest 
is  aroused. 

The  location  of  the  athletic  field  must,  of  necessity,  be  largely 
dictated  by  topography,  as  approximately  level  ground  is 
necessary.  While  it  should  be  convenient  to  the  town,  its 
removal,  within  reasonable  walking  distance,  will  not  be  particu- 
larly objectionable,  if  adjacent  to  a  good  highway. 

Cemeteries. — The  reservation  of  a  suitable  area  of  land  for 
development  as  a  cemetery  will  be  necessary  where  the  housing 
development  is  separated  from  other  communities.  Its  develop- 
ment may  generally  be  left  to  the  control  of  the  community, 
particularly  that  of  the  churches,  but  land  should  be  reserved 
for  the  purpose.  An  attractive  site  is  desirable  and  the  appear- 
ance and  plan  of  improvement  should,  as  nearly  as  possible, 
resemble  those  of  a  park.  Places  of  natural  beauty,  and  groves 
of  trees  should  not  be  unnecessarily  disturbed. 

Cemeteries  should  be  separated  from,  and  preferably  not  in 
view  of,  the  residential  district.  Topographical  features  or 
distance  may  be  utilized,  and  nearby  sites,  if  chosen,  may  be 
screened  by  appropriate  fencing  and  hedge  planting. 

Location  should  be  carefully  chosen.  Marshes,  swampy 
ground,  or  areas  of  high  ground  water  level  are  unsuitable; 
nor  should  the  cemetery  be  located  on  ground  from  which  drain- 
age will  pass  into  water  courses  which  may  be  incidentally  used 
without  filtering  for  drinking  water. 

The  sizgjjf  the  cemetery  can  be  estimated  from  the  anticipated 
population  and  the  average  annual  death  rate,  the  general 
average  being  about  20  deaths  per  annum  per  thousand  popula- 
tion. The  area  should  not  be  entirely  laid  out  for  graves,  as  a 
portion  should  be  developed  for  park  purposes.  Cemeteries 
should  be  carefully  planned  and  laid  out,  with  location  of  drives, 
lots  and  areas  for  individual  graves,  fully  designated  to  enable 
the  keeping  of  proper  records. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWS  PLAN  79 

Surface  drainage  should  be  provided  to  prevent  erosion. 
Careful  investigation  should  be  made  regarding  soil  and  subdrain- 

age  conditions  and  subdrains  of  broken  stone  or  pipe  should  be 
constructed  in  order  to  prevent  seepage  to  adjoining  areas. 

The  development  of  a  cemetery  will  include  driveways,  prefer- 
ably on  grades  not  exceeding  six  per  cent.,  surfaced  with  materials 
suitable  for  light  traffic.  A  water  distribution  system  following 
the  drives  will  also  be  required  to  furnish  a  supply  for  the  sprink- 
ling of  roads,  lawns  and  planting. 

THE  STREET  SYSTEM 

The  function  of  the  streets  is:  (1)  to  provide  for  through 
traffic  from  the  town  to  adjoining  communities  and  centers; 
(2)  to  take  care  of  and  facilitate  inter-communication;  (3)  to 
afford  access  to  the  buildings;  and  (4)  to  provide  subdivision 
of  the  property  into  blocks  These  are  the  primary  uses,  but 
they  also  serve  to  afford  light  and  air  to  the  buildings  fronting 
thereon,  contribute  to  attractiveness  and  order  and  provide 
locations  for  the  various  systems  of  utilities. 

The  street  system  should  therefore  serve  a  number  of  uses  and 
requirements,  which  will  influence  its  design  in  proportion  to 
their  relative  value  and  necessities.  The  classification  of  kinds 
and  importance  of  various  streets  and  thoroughfares  will  be 
presented  later,  after  considering  methods  and  types  of  street 
layouts. 

Types  of  Street  Systems.— For  ready  reference  and  comparison, 
a  classification  of  street  systems  is  convenient.  Various 
types  of  street  systems  have  been  devised  to  answer  different 
requirements  and  conditions,  and  very  often  their  use,  particularly 
that  of  the  rectangular  system,  has  been  perpetuated  largely 
for  reason  of  convenience  and  simplicity,  and  as  a  matter  of 
habit.  The  predominating  influence  leading  to  the  adoption 
of  some  systems,  has  been  that  of  convenient  subdivision- of 
property,  in  others,  the  requirements  of  traffic,  or  economy  of 
construction  has  governed. 

Rectangular  or  Gridiron.— With  a  few  notable  exceptions  the 
rectangular,  or  gridiron  street  system  has  been  generally  used  in 
the  development  of  American  cities.  It  is  composed  of  streets 
located  parallel  and  at  right  angles  to  each  other,  or  approxi- 
mately so,  except  when  modifications  or  deviations  are  caused 
by  topography,  or  by  natural  or  artificial  barriers. 


80  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Its  natural  and  great  advantage  is  that  of  simplicity  and  order, 
particularly  where  topographical  features  are  not  prominent, 
and  the  resulting  convenience  and  simplicity  of  block  subdivi- 
sion. The  rectangular  blocks  can  easily  be  divided  into  rec- 
tangular building  lots,  and  the  surveying,  recording  and  description 
of  property  is  rendered  inexpensive  and  simple. 

As  affording  a  system  of  arterial  streets,  this  type  is  almost 
universally  open  to  serious  objections  and  disadvantages. 
Through  traffic  cannot  adequately  be  provided  for,  nor  controlled, 
and  inter-communication  between  districts  is  necessarily  re- 
stricted, and  made  more  or  less  indirect.  Traffic  cannot  be 
diverted  from  the  residential  streets  and  will  often  use  as  thor- 
oughfares, streets  not  designed  or  intended  for  such  purpose. 
The  introduction  of  occasional  main  or  secondary  diagonal 
arterial  thoroughfares,  while  it  may  minimize  in  some  respects 
these  disadvantages,  does  not  remove  some  of  the  inherent  objec- 
tions to  this  type. 

There  is  a  further  great  objection  and  inherent  disadvantage 
of  the  rectangular  street  system  in  that,  unless  the  topography 
be  uniform  and  fairly  level,  the  extent  and  cost  of  grading  is 
likely  to  be  excessive.  Poor  junctions  result  with  connecting 
streets,  and  there  is  danger  that  the  grade  of  streets,  where  fills 
or  cuts  are  necessary,  will  not  fit  the  adjoining  ground  and  will 
make  the  development  of  the  abutting  property  expensive  or 
perhaps  impracticable.  Where  the  topography  is  rolling  or 
rugged  in  character  the  disadvantage  of  this  system  is  more 
prominent,  and  the  expense  of  sewering  and  draining  is  greatly 
increased. 

Nevertheless,  there  has  been  a  persistence  in  the  use  of  the 
rectangular  system,  regardless  of  topography  and  the  attendant 
costs  of  street  improvement,  installation  of  utilities  and  site 
development.  Where  the  rectangular  system  is  used  on  fairly  level 
territory,  and  consequently  not  subject  to  the  foregoing  serious 
economic  drawbacks,  its  use  is  often  characterized  by  excessive 
monotony,  particularly  where  row  houses  are  built  in  more  or 
less  unbroken  lines. 

It  is  not  to  be  assumed,  however  that  the  rectangular  system, 
cannot  be  used  with  advantage,  particularly  for  residential  and 
minor  streets,  under  proper  topographical  conditions  and  with 
occasional  modifications.  Where  used,  care  must  be  exercised 
to  avoid  monotony  by  breaking  the  continuity  of  the  streets,  by 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  J 'LAN  81 

open  spaces,  offsets,  or  landscape  features;  by  giving  variety  in 
the  grouping  and  placement  of  the  houses,  by  set-backs  and  by 
variations  in  the  design  and  treatment  of  the  street. 

Radial  or  Diagonal. — The  radial  street  system  consists  of  main 
arteries,  which  radiate  from  local  points,  or  "hubs";  thus  pro- 
viding for  the  requirements  of  through  traffic  between  various 
centers  and  points  of  importance. 

The  particular  disadvantage,  from  the  standpoint  of  traffic, 
is  that  communication  between  points,  not  adjacent  to  one  of 
the  "hubs"  or  focal  points,  is  likely  to  be  indirect  and  incon- 
venient. Rigidly  adhered  to  as  a  system,  particularly  where 
the  main  arteries  are  located  in  straight  lines,  with  little  regard 
for  the  requirements  of  topography,  it  will  naturally  have  the 
same  disadvantages  with  regard  to  cost  of  construction  and 
failure  to  fit  the  ground,  as  pertain  to  the  rectangular  system. 

In  fairly  level  ground,  a  system  of  main  arteries  on  the  radial 
plan,  with  well  arranged  secondary  arteries,  can  often  be  used 
effectively.  The  areas  between  the  various  radiating  arter- 
ies will  be  irregular,  often  triangular,  in  shape  and  can  be  sub- 
divided with  secondaiy  and  residential  streets  upon  various 
plans.  The  plan  of  the  Ojibway  Project  (Fig.  3)  will  illustrate 
the  use  of  diagonal  main  thoroughfares  with  the  secondary  and 
residential  streets  on  the  rectangular  plan. 

Formal  or  Geometrical. — The  formal  or  geometrical  plan  of 
streets  is  one  in  which  symmetiy  of  arrangement  and  formal 
design  predominate.  Very  often  such  a  plan  will  consist  of  a 
main  axis,  possibly  a  parkway  or  boulevard  along  which  are 
located  landscape  features,  prominent  groups  of  buildings, 
monuments  or  open  spaces;  all  of  which  are  intended  to  give  a 
formal  landscape  effect.  There  will  often  be  sub-axes  located 
with  reference  to  the  main  way,  oroviding  for  the  requirements 
of  through  traffic  and  intercommunication  and  also  intended 
to  enhance  the  landscape  effects. 

The  various  residential  streets  are  then  laid  out  to  maintain 
the  symmetiy  and  geometry  of  the  plan.  Often  such  a  plan, 
will  consist  very  largely  of  curvilinear  streets  and  be  characterized 
by  the  development  of  the  plan  around  various  geometrical 
forms,  such  as  circles,  squares  or  octagons. 

The  chief  advantages  of  the  formal  plan  are  in  attractiveness, 
interest  and  order  obtained  by  careful  street  planning,  house 
grouping,  special  features  and  landscape  treatment.     But  formal 


82  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

appearance,  and  an  over  emphasized  idea  of  symmetry  in  plan, 
often  predominates  to  such  an  extent  that  economy,  access  and 
intercommunication  are  sacrificed  without  achieving  any  decided 
advantage.  The  formal  plan  will  not,  therefore,  except  to  a 
limited  and  modified  extent,  lend  itself  to  the  development  of  the 
plans  for  industrial  towns. 

It  is  not  intended  to  give  the  impression  that  there  are  not 
places  where  the  formal  plan  may  well  be  used,  but  to  advise 
caution  rather  than  too  rigid  adherence  to  formality  and 
symmetry.  Waste  of  frontage,  depth,  shallow  or  irregular  blocks, 
poor  circulation  and  intercommunication,  are  some  of  the  defects 
often  found  in  formal  plans.  An  overemphasis  is  further 
particularly  objectionable  and  futile  when  the  style,  size  and 
grouping  of  the  houses  is  not  in  keeping  with  such  formality. 
In  planning  large  projects,  the  employment  of  the  formal 
plan,  in  designing  the  important  thoroughfares  and  main  fea- 
tures of  the  town,  will  not  only  be  possible  but  advisable  when 
topography  permits.  The  town  plan  of  Yorkship  Village,  here- 
after discussed  in  some  detail,  (Fig.  16)  is  an  illustration  of  a 
well  considered  application  of  the  formal  plan  which  was  not 
carried  out  to  an  undue  extent.  It  is  further  to  be  noted  in 
making  plans  of  this  kind,  that  departure  from  symmetry  in 
order  to  meet  topographical  conditions,  while  not  particularly 
attractive  on  the  map,  can  be  carried  out  on  the  ground  without 
noticeably  detracting  from  appearance. 

Irregular  or  Haphazard. — Where  a  street  system  develops  in  a 
piecemeal  fashion,  without  intelligent  planning  or  control,  as  has 
been  the  case  in  so  many  of  our  American  cities,  the  resulting 
street  system  often  can  be  classified  as  irregular. 

It  has  all  of  the  faults  and  disadvantages  that  obtain  with  any 
of  the  preceding  systems;  and  because  of  its  lack  of  idea  gener- 
ally has  more  instances  of  them.  Examples  are  everywhere 
present  of  such  lack  of  care  and  foresight,  and  the  resultant 
expenses  for  correction  appear  in  municipal  budgets  year  after 
year. 

Contour  Streets. — Where  streets  are  located  with  reference 
to  obtaining  easy  grades,  a  minimum  of  cut  and  fill,  and  with 
the  idea  of  fitting  the  ground  so  that  little  lot  grading  will  be 
required,  the  streets  will  roughly  parallel  the  contours  of  the 
ground.  This  may  for  convenience  be  described  as  a  contour 
system  of  streets. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  I 'LAN  83 

The  grades  of  main  streets  will  generally  be  low  compared 
to  the  natural  cross  slopes  of  the  surface,  and  the  cross  streets, 
approximately  normal  to  the  slope,  will  have  steeper  grades. 
For  this  reason  cross  streets  cannot  be  introduced  into  the  plan 
as  frequently  as  desired,  thus  making  it  necessary  for  local  traffic 
to  detour  more  or  less.  In  so  far  as  residential  and  particularly 
the  minor  residential  streets  are  concerned,  the  requirements 
of  through  traffic  do  not  obtain,  and  if  good  access  be  provided, 
indirectness,  if  not  excessive,  does  not  detract  from  the  prac- 
ticability of  the  plan. 

The  contour  system  is,  therefore,  more  applicable  in  the 
development  of  the  residential  subdistricts  of  the  tract  than 
for  the  planning  of  the  main  system  of  streets,  wherein  it  will 
be  necessary  to  consider  the  requirements  of  through  traffic, 
especially  that  of  directness.  Important  connecting  thorough- 
fares, where  the  contour  street  system  is  used  quite  generally 
for  the  residential  streets,  will  not  necessarily  follow  such  a  plan 
rigidly.  They  will  deflect  therefrom,  as  required  to  obtain  direct- 
ness and  as  permitted  by  the  limits  of  permissible  grades. 

As  both  contour  streets  and  the  formal  plan  will  require  or 
employ  curvilinear  streets,  it  will  be  of  value  to  consider  the 
advantages  and  disadvantages  of  such  streets.  Curved  contour 
streets  are  frequently  justified  by  the  topography,  as  by  their  use, 
earthwork  and  the  grade  will  be  reduced.  It  will  be  recognized 
that  under  some  conditions  the  use  of  curved  streets  is  dictated 
irrespective  of  any  disadvantages.  However,  unless  their 
adoption  is  warranted,  either  by  physical  conditions  or  great 
attractiveness,  the  excessive  use  of  curvilinear  streets  is  ques- 
tionable and  they  should  not  be  so  employed  without  due  con- 
sideration of  the  extra  costs  involved.  The  cost  of  both  the 
preliminary  and  construction,  field  and  office  engineering  work 
will  necessarily  be  greater  than  where  the  rectangular  system  is 
used.  Such  work  involves  the  laying  out  of  the  property, 
locating  streets,  block  subdivisions,  line  and  grade  for  street 
improvements,  utilities,  buildings,  lot  grading,  the  preparation 
of  record  drawings  and  the  description  and  recording  of  the 
individual  lots. 

The  increased  cost  of  utility  construction  will  be  the  largest 
item  of  expense  in  building  curved  streets.  It  will  cost  more, 
particularly  if  the  curves  are  so  sharp  that  trenching  machines 
cannot  be  used,  to  excavate,  sheath  and  shore  a  1  rench  on  a  curve 


84  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

than  in  a  straight  line.  Sanitary  sewers,  where  the  sizes  are 
small  and  grades  low,  will  be  laid  on  chords,  thus  increasing  the 
number  of  manholes  required.  As  a  larger  part  of  the  continuous 
street  cross-section  will  thus  be  occupied,  there  is  greater  prob- 
ability of  interference  with  other  substructures.  If  overhead 
pole  lines  are  to  be  located  on  the  streets,  sharp  curves  and 
angles  will  require  excessive  guying. 

A  reasonable  amount  of  curvature,  introduced  for  specific 
purposes,  will  not  have  the  striking  effects  herein  described, 
or  at  least  such  will  be  comparatively  negligible.  But  the 
increased  cost  occasioned  by  the  excessive  use  of  curvilinear 
streets  cannot  be  ignored,  and  must  be  balanced  against  the 
saving  in  street  and  lot  grading,  the  omission  of  retaining  walls 
and    bridges,    the    reduction    in    grade    and    other  advantages. 

The  plans  of  Buckman  Village,  at  Chester,  Pa.,  (Fig.  1) 
built  by  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation,  and  that  of  the  Love- 
land  Farms  Development,  at  Youngstown,  Ohio,  built  by  the 
Youngstown  Sheet  &  Tube  Company,  are  typical  of  the  extensive 
employment  of  contour  streets.  In  the  former  development, 
the  slopes,  although  short,  are  generally  uniform,  and  the 
blocks  are  approximately  rectangular,  so  that  the  system  may 
be  classed  as  rectangular  with  modifications  to  conform  with  the 
topography.  The  irregularity  of  the  topography  in  the  case  of 
the  Loveland  Farms  plan,  (see  Fig.  2).  made  such  an  approxi- 
mately rectangular  arrangement  impossible,  uneconomical  and 
undesirable.  Much  better  results  were  secured,  in  obtaining 
good  grades,  in  low  cost  of  street  and  lot  grading,  and  also  in 
obtaining  a  large  number  of  good  building  lots,  than  would  have 
been  possible  had  the  rectangular  system  been  used. 

Rational  Layout  of  Streets. — The  street  system  should  be 
designed  to  answer  its  primary  and  essential  requirements  as  to 
traffic,  access,  cost  and  property  subdivision.  A  rational  method 
of  planning  is  advised,  rather  than  unquestioned  adoption  of 
any  particular  system.  The  questions  of  purpose  and  use  should 
predominate  and  dictate  in  working  out  the  plan  and  its  details, 
and  there  should  be  good  reason  and  definite  objectives 
for  the  designation  of  each  street  and  each  element  and  feature 
of  the  layout.  Formality  and  symmetry  should  be  employed 
to  the  extent  that  the  importance  of  the  project  and  its  general 
scheme  warrant,  and  topographical  features  permit.  Radial 
streets,  connecting  the  important  centers  and  making  due  provi- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  85 

sion  for  the  requirements  of  through  traffic,  should  be  located 
with  regard  to  this  prime  requisite  and  with  only  subordinate 
attention  to  the  size  and  shape  of  the  intervening  tracts. 

The  system  of  streets  to  be  adopted  need  not  be  of  any  particu- 
lar type,  but  should  utilize  any  of  the  foregoing  systems  in  whole 
or  in  part,  to  the  extent  which  conditions  warrant  and  which  will 
accomplish  the  desired  results.  The  plan  of  arterial  highways 
will  necessarily  depend  upon  traffic  requirements,  and  the  number 
and  location  of  important  centers  and  strategic  points,  so  that 
advice  which  will  be  generally  applicable  cannot  be  formulated, 
except  in  regard  to  general  principles.  The  location,  grades  and 
width  of  arterial  highways  should  be  fixed  in  conformity  with  the 
requirements  of  through  traffic. 

In  the  business  or  commercial  district  the  rectangular  plan  of 
streets,  and  policy  of  avoiding  curves  and  steep  gradients  should 
generally  be  followed.  The  residential  streets  will  be  arranged 
on  either  the  rectangular,  the  formal  or  the  contour  system,  in 
such  manner  as  to  conform  with  the  type  of  development,  house 
building,  lot  subdivision  and  topography.  In  residential  dis- 
tricts attractiveness,  economy  of  construction  and  conformity 
with  lot  grades  will  take  precedence  over  the  requirements  of 
traffic. 

Classification  of  Streets.— Streets  may  be  classified  with  refer- 
ence to  importance  and  character  of  use.  Such  a  classification 
having  in  mind  a  completely  developed  street  system,  is  as 
follows: 

1.  Arterial  streets,  or  main  thoroughfares,  which  are  essentially 
through  traffic  streets. 

2.  Secondary  streets,  being  important  links  between  arterial  streets 
and  forming  connections  with  the  various  districts  or  centers. 

3.  Major  and  minor  residential  streets,  provided  primarily  to  afford 
access  to  the  houses  and  carrying  only  local  traffic. 

4.  Industrial  and  business  streets. 

5.  Special  streets,  such  as  boulevards,  parkways,  etc. 

In  such  a  classification  as  the  foregoing,  the  amount  of  traffic 
is  kept  more  or  less  in  mind.  The  use  of  the  several  kinds  of 
streets  will  now  be  discussed. 

Arterial  Streets  or  Main  Thoroughfares. — Main  or  arterial 
streets  must  be  located  and  designed  with  particular  reference 
to  their  principal  function,   that  of  providing  as  direct,  con- 


86  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

venient  and  economical  facilities  for  through  traffic  as  the  require- 
ments demand  and  the  topographical  conditions  permit. 

Where  an  arterial  street  or  thoroughfare  is  not  to  pass  through 
the  project,  a  primary  street  should  be  located  with  proper 
relation  to  the  street  system  and  in  such  manner  as  to  afford  a 
good  connection  to  existing  or  projected  arteries.  Where  an 
arterial  highway  passes  through  the  project,  that  section  within 
the  project  should  be  designed,  not  only  to  care  for  the  require- 
ments of  through  traffic,  but  also  the  particular  requirements 
created  within  the  project  itself.  Particular  attention  should 
be  given  to  the  frequency  and  manner  of  making  connections  with 
the  street  system  of  the  project,  to  the  parking  of  vehicles  along 
the  curb  and  to  other  uses  required  of  an  urban  street. 

Streets  of  this  class  should  be  so  located  that  they  will  connect 
the  various  centers  as  directly  as  possible.  Modifications  and 
deviations  from  the  straight  line  will  necessarily  be  made,  in 
order  to  keep  cuts  and  fills  within  reasonable  limits  and  prevent 
damage  to  adjoining  properties.  If  the  topograph}^  is  generally 
flat  or  uniform,  long  tangents  may  be  used;  making  only  such 
modifications  as  may  be  necessary  to  avoid  undesirable  sub- 
division of  property.  It  must  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  in 
locating  traffic  thoroughfares  that  the  effect  upon  the  subdivi- 
sion of  property  is  of  relatively  minor  importance. 

Where  changes  in  alignment  are  necessary,  the  deflections 
should  be  made  by  means  of  easy  curves,  as  the  flow  of  traffic 
will  be  obstructed  if  sharp  angles  must  be  turned  or  if  vision  is 
lessened  by  such  turns.  Many  roadways  of  ample  width  lose 
their  effectiveness  and  their  capacity,  on  account  of  obstructions 
and  delay  occasioned  by  sharp  turns  and  awkward  junctions  with 
other  streets. 

The  width  of  an  arterial  street  should  be  based  upon  the 
estimated  volume  of  future  traffic,  with  suitable  provision  for 
local  requirements  and  uses.  Streets  of  this  class  should  not  be 
less  than  60  feet  in  width,  which  will  provide  for  a  roadway  width 
of  36  feet.  In  large  projects,  where  the  arterial  street  is  one  of 
the  primary  streets  of  the  town  it  will  often  be  found  desirable  to 
increase  the  width,  to  80  or  120  feet. 

The  distance  between  property  lines,  definingthe  width  of  the 
street,  should  be  made  ample,  even  though  a  comparatively 
narrow  roadway  will  answer  immediate  requirements.  This  is 
for  the  reason  that  this  traveled  way  may  be  widened,  without 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  87 

incurring  excessive  property  damage  or  construction  cost;  thus 
the  elastic  street  and  possible  future  use  is  provided.  A  later 
widening,  involving  setting  back  and  changing  the  property 
lines,  will  generally  be  very  costly  and  difficult  to  execute 

The  grade  of  arterial  streets  and  of  the  primary  streets  of  the 
town  should  not  exceed  five  per  cent.,  otherwise  greatly  increased 
cost  will  result.  The  United  States  Housing  Corporation 
recommended  that  the  grade  of  main  thoroughfares  and  first- 
class  business  streets  should  net,  if  possible,  exceed  three  per 
cent  The  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  indicated  a  desirable 
maximum  of  not  over  five  per  cent,  for  streets  of  this  class. 
Whatever  may  be  the  desired  maximum  grade,  the  limitations 
imposed  by  topography  may  make  it  necessary  to  adopt  grad- 
ients considerably  in  excess  of  those  hitherto  recommended. 
The  ruling  grades  of  highways  in  the  vicinity,  and  particularly 
that  of  arterial  highways,  should  be  fully  considered  and  no  un- 
due expense  or  deviation  from  direct  line  resorted  torn  an 
endeavor  to  obtain  grades  less  than  the  limiting  grades  of  con- 
necting highways. 

Grade  crossings  should  be  avoided,  as  they  are  not  only  a 
menace  to  life  but  they  seriously  obstruct  traffic  as   well.     Even 
though  a  grade  crossing  must  be  maintained  for  the  present, 
arterial  and  main  thorough  fares  should  be  so  located  on  the  plan, 
that  the   elimination  of  such   crossings     can  be  subsequently 
accomplished  without  undue  expense  or  disturbance  of  conditions. 
Subarterial  or  Secondary  Streets. -Streets  which  form  import- 
ant traffic  links  between  or  to  arterial  streets  are   classed   as 
secondary,  or  subarterial   streets.     The  requirements  of  these 
are  intermediate  between  those  of  arterial  and  of  residential 
streets      As  traffic  requirements  are  not  so  important,  the  mini- 
mum gradient  can  be  increased  but  should  not  exceed  eight  per 

CCThe  principal  street  of  the  development,  if  through  traffic  is 
not  to  be  provided  for,  and  if  the  development  is  of  compara- 
tively smaU  size,  will  fall  into  the  class  of  secondary  streets, 
although  the  street  in  question  is  the  major  one  m  the  develop- 
ment itself.  The  requirements  of  heavy  hauling  to  and  from 
industrial    plants   must,    however,    be   taken    into   account    m 

fixing  the  grade.  . 

The  width  of  secondary  streets,  varied  to  suit  requirements 
will  range  from  50  to  80  feet,     Secondary  thoroughfares  should 


88  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

be  planned  with  some  reference  to  the  subdivision  of  property, 
particularly  to  avoid  division  into  awkwardly  shaped  blocks. 
Directness,  however,  should  not  be  unduly  sacrificed,  although  it 
is  not  as  important  as  in  the  case  of  arterial  thoroughfares.  Ad- 
vantage, to  a  reasonable  extent,  may  be  taken  of  adjusting  the 
location  to  the  topography.  Seondary  streets  should  be  laid  out 
with  the  idea  of  diverting  through  traffic  from  residential  streets. 
Commercial  traffic  and  heavy  hauling,  particularly,  should  be 
confined  to  streets  located  and  built  for  that  purpose. 

Residential  Streets. — The  planning  and  location  of  residential 
streets  is  closely  connected  with  property  subdivision.  The 
principal  purpose  of  such  streets  is  to  provide  access,  vehicu- 


Fig.  6. — An  interesting  street  view  in  the  Union  Park  development  of  the 
Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  at  Wilmington,  Del. ;  a  contour  street  in  the  plan- 
ning of  which,  care  was  exercised  to  preserve  the  trees. 

lar  and  pedestrian,  to  and  from  the  houses;  and  to  afford  an 
open  space  between  the  houses  thus  providing  light  and  air. 
They  are  to  be  located  and  the  grades  to  be  fixed  in  accordance 
with  the  foregoing  requirements,  and  in  a  manner  permitting  the 
property  abutting  thereon  to  be  conveniently  and  economically 
developed  for  residential  purposes.  Attention  must  further  be 
given  to  the  appearance  and  attractiveness  which  will  be  obtained 
when  the  proper  relationship  exists  between  the  location,  design 
and  treatment  of  the  streets,  and  the  planning,  grouping  an 
architectural  treatment  of  the  houses. 

The  relation  of  the  residential  streets  to  the  primary  and 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  'I1IE  TOWN  PLAN  89 

secondary  streets  of  the  town  is  of  great  importance.  It  is 
desirable,  for  a  number  of  reasons,  so  to  plan  the  former  and 
their  connections  with  the  secondary  and  major  streets  that 
a  free  outlet  to  traffic  will  be  afforded,  without  attracting  through 
traffic  and  heavy  hauling  to  the  residential  streets.  This  is  not 
to  be  accomplished  by  imposing  objectionable  difficulty  in  the 
way,  such  as  excessive  grades,  narrow  widths  or  poor  paving, 
but  by  inviting  traffic  to  the  main  highway,  by  the  superior 
facilities  and  convenience  offered.  Such  regulation  of  traffic  can 
further  be  effected  by  making  traffic  routes  through  the  residen- 
tial streets  relatively  indirect  when  compared  with  those  obtain- 
ing on  the  main  highways. 

Monotonous  continuity  is  neither  necessary  nor  desirable. 
Where  the  rectangular  system  of  streets  is  laid  out,  variety  and 
attractiveness  should  be  obtained  by  the  occasional  use  of  curves, 
open  spaces  and  special  treatment  of  intersections,  and  by 
breaking  the  continuity  of  the  streets  in  such  a  manner  as  to 
afford  attractive  vistas  and  interesting  views. 

The  width  of  residential  streets  will  vary  with  the  practical 
requirements.  It  is  related  to  the  minimum  desirable  distance 
between  the  fronts  of  houses,  and  with  the  design  of  landscape 
treatment.  Widths  of  50  and  40  feet  are  ordinarily  used  for 
residential  streets  and  60  feet  in  high  class  developments.  When 
special  emphasis  is  desired,  wider  streets  with  central  park 
spaces  are  used.  At  times  it  may  be  desirable  to  reduce  the 
cost  of  grading  by  the  use  of  hillside  streets  of  narrow  widths. 
Where  it  is  planned  to  erect  houses  upon  the  upper  side  only,  the 
width  may  be  made  even  less  than  40  feet.  Streets  of  this  type 
with  a  width  of  30  feet,  and  a  sidewalk  on  the  upper  side,  have 
given  satisfaction. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  grades  of  residence  streets  should  not 
exceed  twelve  per  cent.,  both  on  account  of  the  increased  cost 
of  paving  and  maintenance  on  steeper  gradients,  and  of  the 
difficulty  and  expense  of  building  on  the  abutting  frontage. 
Although  the  maximum  gradient  may  be  used  where  necessary, 
it  will  be  generally  desirable  to  limit  the  grade  to  the  neighbor- 
hood of  eight  per  cent.,  especially  on  long  slopes. 

Business  Streets. — Business  streets  should  be  located  and 
planned  for  the  particular  requirements  to  which  they  will  be 
subjected.  The  following  recommendations  apply  to  streets  of 
this  character. 


90  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

The  alignment  should  preferably  be  straight,  as  the  buildings, 
facing  thereon  will  ordinarily  be  solid  business  blocks  abutting 
on  the  street  line.  The  grade  should  preferably  not  exceed 
three  per  cent. 

The  width  must  be  ample  to  take  care  of  the  requirements 
of  through  vehicular,  street  car  and  pedestrian  traffic,  and  to 
permit  of  vehicles  standing  at  the  curb  without  impeding  the 
movement  of  traffic.  A  minimum  width  of  36  feet  of  roadway 
and  an  overall  width  of  60  feet  is  indicated,  but  this  width  will 
be  insufficient  if  the  street  be  characterized  as  an  important 
thoroughfare.  In  such  cases  the  requirements  of  through 
traffic,  convenience  and  use  would  indicate  a  width  of  at  least 
80  feet.  The  width,  however,  should  not  exceed  100  feet  as 
excessively  wide  streets  tend  to  discourage  business. 

The  width  of  the  sidewalk  and  planting  strip  should  be  ample 
and  not  less  than  12  feet.  If  there  is  any  concentration  of 
business  upon  the  streets,  the  planting  space  between  the  curb 
and  paved  walk  should  be  omitted  and  the  sidewalk  extended 
from  the  property  line  to  the  curb. 

Streets  with  Car  Tracks. — When  a  street  or  thoroughfare  is  to 
be  occupied  by  a  street  railway  line,  it  will  be  either  a  main  or 
secondary  traffic  thoroughfare  and  will  therefore  be  planned  both 
to  serve  the  general  requirements  of  such  highways  and  also 
the  particular  requirements  of  the  street  railway.  When  a 
double  track  is  to  be  laid,  the  minimum  width  of  streets  should 
be  60  feet,  which  will  allow  for  a  36-foot  roadway.  A  54-foot 
roadway,  and  a  total  width  of  street  of  80  feet  will  be  much  better, 
as  it  affords  room  for  vehicular  passage  on  each  side  of  the  tracks 
with  standing  room  at  the  curbs. 

Parkways  and  Boulevards. — Parkways  and  boulevards  may  be 
classed  as  specialized  streets.  They  will  be  provided  primarily 
to  afford  attractive  and  pleasing  routes  for  fast-moving  pleasure 
traffic,  and  as  features  in  the  landscape  design.  They  should  be 
located  with  proper  relation,  to  points  or  centers  of  interest,  and 
should  be  carefully  coordinated  with  the  design  of  parks,  public 
buildings,  the  civic  center,  and  other  main  features  of  the  town 
plan. 

In  cases  of  this  kind,  there  is  naturally  great  variety  in  methods 
of  treatment  and  in  the  factors  of  the  design  such  as  width,  arrange- 
ment and  general  plan.  They  generally  provide  for  street  car 
tracks,  if  used,  in  an  unpaved  and  grassed  strip  either  in  the  center 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  (J1 

with  a  drive  on  each  side,  or  else  at  one  side,  removed  from  the 
travelled   way;    the   latter   is   particularly  useful    on    side    lull 

construction. 

Alleys.— Alleys  should  be  provided  when  necessary  to  attord 
access  to  the  rear  of  row-dwellings,  apartments  or  business 
blocks  They  should,  in  all  cases,  be  public  thoroughfares,  at 
least  12  feet  in  width,  paved  for  8  feet;  or  if  two-way  traffic 
be  required  the  minimum  width  should  he  1G  feet.  Alleys 
should  be  located  to  afford  a  clear  view  from  both  ends, 
thus  facilitating  lighting,  inspection  and  policing.  Where 
narrow  alleys  are  provided,  change  in  direction,  if  required, 
should  be  made  on  easy  curves,  permitting  vehicles  to  turn 
without  damaging  fences  and  hedges.  The  erection  of  board 
fences  or  of  buildings  abutting  directly  on  the  alleys  should  be 
prohibited  by  restrictions  and  by  the  building  code. 

There  has  been  much  discussion  for  and  against  alleys,  and 
there  has  been  a  marked  tendency  in  recent  years  to  largely 
discontinue  their  establishment  wherever  possible  in  municipal 
and  town  planning  practice.  Alleys  will  generally  be  necessary 
as  service  roads  where  houses  are  built  in  long  rows.  Their  use 
in  other  circumstances  will  depend  upon  the  relative  advantages 
and  disadvantages  accruing  therefrom. 

Their  principal  advantage  will  be  to  promote  convenient 
access  for  the  delivery  of  household  supplies,  as  food  stuffs, 
and  coal,  and  the  removal  of  household  waste,  as  garbage,  rub- 
bish and  ashes.  They  may  serve  to  make  possible  the  effective 
sanitary  inspection  of  rear  lots,  and  the  character  and  habits  of 
the  occupants  may  make  alleys  desirable  for  this  reason.  They 
may  provide  access  in  case  of  fire,  which  is  an  important  element 
if  long  rows  are  to  be  built,  The  modern  demands  for  space 
for  the  automobile  garage,  even  for  the  smaller  homes  and  all 
classes  of  occupants,  may  make  alleys  desirable,  particularly  if 
the  houses  are  to  be  sold. 

Alleys  may  often  be  used  to  advantage  for  the  location  of 
overhead  and  underground  utilities;  and,  although  easements 
will  serve  such  purposes  as  well,  public  utility  companies  are 
often  disinclined  to  locate  in  the  latter,  on  account  of  the  diffi- 
culty of  access  and  their  preference  for  a  public  highway. 

The  first  objection  to  alleys  is  the  cost  of  construction  and 
maintenance.     Such  improvements  as  grading,  paving,  draining 


92 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


and  lighting  will  appreciably  increase  the  total  cost  of  the  pro- 
ject. They  will  also  add  to  the  lot  cost  where  the  abutting 
property  has  to  be  graded  to  the  alley,  and  where  fencing  on  the 
rear  lot  line,  and  a  rear  house  walk,  may  be  required. 

The  cost  of  operation  embraced  in  the  upkeep  and  main- 
tenance, is  a  further  item  of  importance.  Alleys  must  be  cleaned 
with  the  same  care  as  the  streets;  they  must  be  lighted  and 
policed;  and  the  pavement  must  be  kept  in  repair.  Undesirable 
living  and  sanitary  conditions  often  obtain  in  alleys  of  urban 
districts;  this  should  be  kept  in  mind  and  avoided  by  intelligent 
planning.     The  cost  and  disadvantages  of  alleys  are  such  that  it 


Yia.  7. — A  concrete  service  alley  in  the  Dundalk  Project  of  the  Emergency  Fleet 
Corporation,  near  Baltimore,  Md. 

may  be  wise  to  consider  building  semi-detached,  or  small  groups 
of  houses,  and  providing  passages  between  the  groups  or  rows, 
rather  than  constructing  alleys. 

The  author  made  an  estimate  in  1913  of  the  cost  of  construct- 
ing alleys  for  a  large  project  for  five  thousand  houses.  The 
results  of  this  study  showed  that  the  additional  net  cost  for 
alleys  twelve  feet  wide  was  about  $200,000  or  $40.00  per  lot. 
The  estimated  increase  in  annual  maintenance  expense  per  lot 
was  $5.30.  The  increase  in  house  rental  to  cover  the  cost  of 
constructing  and  maintaining  alleys,  according  to  the  above 
figures,  would  be  about  44  cents  per  month.     Present  day  costs 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN 


93 


of  construction  would  greatly  increase  the  foregoing.  In  this 
particular  instance,  the  recommendation  that  alleys  be  omitted 
from  the  plan  was  made  and  adopted. 

Details  of  Street  Design. — Width  of  Roadway. — The  width  of 
roadway  must  be  fixed  to  accommodate  the  traffic,  to  permit 
the  temporary  parking  of  vehicles  along  the  curb  and  to  permit 
the  turning  of  vehicles  from  the  street  into  private  driveways 
without  unduly  interfering  with  the  movement  of  traffic.  The 
width  of  the  street,  which  includes,  in   addition  to   the  road- 


Fig.  8. — Rear  yards  of  row  houses  of  the  Sun  Hill  Project  of  the  Emergency 
Fleet  Corporation  at  Chester,  Pa.  Access  to  the  rear  is  gained  by  the  concrete 
walk,  located  on  an  easement,  and  which  has  a  dished  cross-section  and  serves  to 
facilitate  surface  drainage. 


way,  the  sidewalks  and  planting  strips,  should  be  planned  to 
take  care  of  the  future  requirements,  rather  than  those  of  the 
present. 

It  will  be  unnecessary  and  uneconomical  to  make  the  present 
roadway  of  greater  width  than  the  traffic  requirements  will 
demand  at  the  end  of  the  fife  of  the  initial  surfacing.  This 
suggests  the  so-called  "elastic  street,"  which  contemplates 
the  laying  down  of  pavements  adequate  for  present  requirements 
in  such  way  that  the  roadway  can  later  be  widened,  when  resur- 
faced,  by  moving  back  the  curbs. 


94 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


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Fig.  9. — Typical  and  sugqcsicd  examples  in  street  subdivision.  (A)  A  park- 
way in  Yorkship  Village.  (B)  40-foot  street  with  18-foot  roadway.  (C)  50-foot 
street  with  20-foot  roadway.  (D)  40-foot  street  with  20-foot  roadway.  (E) 
50-foot  street  with  26-foot,  roadway.  (F)  60-foot  street  with  36-foot  roadway. 
(G)  85-foot  street  with  56-foot  roadway  designed  for  four  lines  of  vehicular  traffic 
and  two  street  car  tracks.  (H)  50-foot  street  with  28-foot  roadway  and  single 
track.  (I)  60-foot  street  with  double  track.  (J)  Alternative  design  of  40-toot 
street  with  tree  line  set  hack  of  street  line. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWS  PLAN  95 

Detail  recommendations  on  the  subject  of  widths  is  presented 
in  Chapter  V. 

Sidewalks. — The  width  of  the  paved  sidewalk  should  be  fixed 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  pedestrian  ( ravel.  It  will  range  from 
a  minimum  of  four  feet  to  six  feet  for  residential  streets,  and  from 
eight  to  twelve  feet  in  business  districts.  Such  width  of  side- 
walk should  be  paved  as  early  as  the  requirements  appear  to 
make  necessary.  The  paved  width  may  later  be  increased  with 
little  difficulty,  provided  the  distance  from  the  curb  line  to  the 
property  fine  has  been  made  of  adequate  width. 

The  sidewalk  space  includes  not  only  the  paved  sidewalks, 
but  the  planting  strip,  and  the  space  reserved,  if  any,  to  permit 
of  future  roadway  widening.  The  ordinary  practice  is  to  allow 
a  narrow  strip,  generally  two  feet  in  width,  between  the  property 
line  and  the  edge  of  the  sidewalk,  and  a  planting  strip,  between 
the  sidewalk  and  the  curb.  This  main  planting  strip  should 
be  at  least  five  feet  wide,  in  order  to  give  requisite  space  for  the 
planting  of  trees,. and  to  discourage  pedestrians  from  encroaching 
upon  it  by  giving  it  sufficient  emphasis.  A  40-foot  street,  with 
a  20-foot  roadway,  will  allow  for  two  10-foot  side  widths,  each 
width  providing  space  for  a  one-foot  strip  between  the  property 
line  and  sidewalk,  a  4-foot  paved  sidewalk,  and  a  5-foot  plant- 
ing strip.  If  there  is  occasion  to  make  some  of  the  minor  streets 
less  than  40  feet  in  width,  the  planting  strip  must  be  decreased, 
and  it  may  be  advisable  to  lay  the  paved  sidewalk  directly 
against  the  curb;  thus  placing  the  planting  strip  between  the 
inner  edge  of  the  sidewalk  and  the  property  line.  This  plan 
was  followed  with  pleasing  effect  in  improving  some  of  the 
minor  streets  of  the  Dundalk  development  at  St.  Helena,  Md. 
built  by  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation. 

Court  Streets. — -Dead-end  streets  are  to  be  avoided,  as  objec- 
tionable from  the  standpoint  of  traffic  requirements  and  par- 
ticularly from  the  standpoint  of  fire  protection  and  policing. 
Desire  for  variety  and  special  grouping  for  expensive  residences 
or  apartments  and  where  the  contour  of  the  land  dictates,  may, 
however,  make  it  advisable  to  develop  part  of  the  tract  with  court 
streets,  by  extending  a  minor  residential  street  from  the  main 
street  and  providing  an  ample  circular  turn  at  the  extremity. 
Such  streets  or  courts  have  been  frequently  used  to  advantage 
in  the  development  of  high-class  property,  and  are  of  value  in 
that  they  add  to  attractiveness  and  individuality. 


96 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


Court  streets  may  further  be  used  to  develop  those  portions 
of  the  tract,  where  it  is  difficult  or  impossible  to  locate  a  through 
street;  and  can  particularly  be  used  advantageously  in  sub- 
divisions where  the  topography  is  broken  and  steep  slopes 
predominate.     This  idea  was  employed  to  a  considerable  extent 


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Fig.  10. — Typical  study  of  planting  for  housing  development;  proposed  plant- 
ing for  the  housing  project  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  at  Newburgh, 
N.  Y. 

in  the  subdivision  of  the  Loveland  Farms  project  (See  Fig.  2) 
and  made  possible  a  far  more  economical  subdivision  of  the 
property,  particularly  in  the  case  of  deep  and  irregular  blocks, 
than  would  have  been  the  cage  if  through  streets  had  been  located. 
Orientation. — As  it  is  desirable  that  each  room  of  a  dwelling 
should  receive  direct  sunlight  during  some  part  of  the  day,  the 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  97 

question  of  exposure  should  be  carefully  considered  where  then; 
is  choice  in  the  orientation  of  the  streets,  particularly  in  northern 
climates.  Streets  should  be  located  in  such  a  way  as  to  give  the 
largest  amount  of  building  frontage  having  good  exposure, 
especially  in  case  row  houses  are  to  be  built. 

If  topographical  or  other  conditions  require  that  some  of  the 
building  streets  extend  east  and  west,  conditions  can  be  greatly 
improved  by  suitable  lot  subdivision.  Preference  should  be 
given  to  building  detached  houses,  with  side  windows  in  the 
rooms  having  northerly  exposure,  rather  than  group  or  row 
houses. 

Intersections. — Intersections  and  junctions  of  important  traffic 
thoroughfares  must  be  planned  in  such  a  manner  that  the  move- 
ment of  traffic  will  not  be  interrupted  nor  collisions  occur.  This 
will  generally  involve,  with  narrow  roadways, 'the  enlargement 
of  the  intersection,  the  rounding  off  of  the  corners,  or  the  occa- 
sional employment  of  central  park  spaces  of  circular  or  of  curved 
form.  The  latter  should  be  designed  with  care,  in  order  to  facili- 
tate and  direct  rather  than  obstruct,  traffic  movement,  and 
should  be  planned  to  favor  traffic  on  the  more  important  street. 
The  grades  of  important  intersections  should  also  be  carefully 
designed,  those  of  the  more  important  highways  being  given  the 
preference. 

It  is  desirable  to  reduce  the  number  of  intersections  of  minor 
and  arterial  streets  to  a  minimum  consistent  with  good  circulation 
and  access,  so  that  the  movement  of  high  speed  traffic  on  the 
thoroughfare  will  not  be  subject  to  frequent  interruptions. 
Suggested  designs  for  typical  intersection  problems  are  illustrated 
in  Fig.  11. 

The  intersections  of  residential  streets,  insofar  as  traffic  is 
concerned,  do  not  ordinarily  require  any  special  study,  except  to 
insure  that  good  platform  grades  are  used,  and  that  the  corners 
'  are  eased  off  with  curves  of  sufficient  radius  to  permit  the  easy 
turning  of  vehicles.  Such  intersections,  however,  may  be 
utilized  in  developing  the  landscape  scheme,  by  employing  street 
offsets,  central  parked  areas,  and  special  designs  of  interest, 
individuality  and  attractiveness. 

Profile  and  Grade. — The  profile  of  the  street  and  its  elevation 
relative  to  that  of  the  finished  surface  and  adjoining  lots  and 
floor  levels  of  buildings  is  of  great  practical  importance  and  also 
affects  appearance  and  attractiveness.     For  the  sake  of  appear- 


98 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


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Fu.  li. — Typical  street  intersections:  (1)  An  enlargement  at  a  five-way 
intersection.  (2)  Rounding  of  radius  at  acute  intersection.  (3)  Typical  parked 
area  or  island,  at  intersection.  (4)  A  small  parked  square  in  a  residential  plan. 
(5,6)    Intersections  designed  to  facilitate  traffic  movement.      (7)  A  court  street 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN 


99 


ance,  the  first  floor  level  of  the  buildings  should  be  at  least  two 
feet  above  the  street,  depending,  however,  upon  the  set-back 
and  the  topography.  In  some  instances  down-hill  depressions 
are  used,  and  need  special  treatment.  The  requirements  of  lot 
and  block  drainage  must  be  considered,  together  with  those  of 
gutter  capacity  and  traffic  as  outlined  in  a  following  chapter. 
Such  determinations  should  be  made  at  the  time  of  preparing 
the  design  and  fixing  the  grades  of  houses,  walks  and  lots,  in 
order  to  insure  suitable  drainage  and  promote  economy  in 
construction. 


Fig.  12. — Street  view  in  Buekman  Village,  Chester,  Pa. 

The  curb  grades  must  be  fixed  so  that  sufficient  fall  will  be 
provided  to  drain  the  sidewalk  and  planting  strip,  and  the  finished 
surface  of  the  adjoining  lots.  This  will  require  slopes  of  not  less 
than  one-quarter  inch  per  foot  for  paved  sidewalk  surfaces,  and 
from  three-eights  to  one-half  inch  per  foot  for  lawns.  It  is 
advisable,  topography  and  cost  permitting,  to  have  the  front 
lawn  drain  to  the  sidewalk.     The  manner  in  which  the  drainage 


with  turning  circle  and  connecting  walk.  (8)  An  intersection  design  from  York 
ship  Village.  (9)  ( Conventional  four-way  rectangular  intersection.  (10)  Donley 
Square  in  the  Lorain  Project  of  the  Emergency  Meet  Corporation.  (11)  Usual 
three-way  intersection.  (12)  Intersection  designed  to  prevent  traffic  congestion 
at  intersection  of  minor  streets  with  main  thoroughfare.  (13)  A  circular  or 
gyratory  intersection  of  three  streets.  (14)  An  informal  design  of  an  offset  in- 
tersection with  easy  curves.  (15)  An  intersection  park  in  a  minor  residential 
street. 


100 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


of  the  side  and  rear  yard  can  best  and  most  economically  be 
effected  will  depend  upon  the  topography  and  the  comparative 
amount  of  grading  required.  In  fact,  the  whole  grading  problem, 
including  street  improvements,  lot  grading  and  cellar  excavation 
must  be  considered  as  a  single  problem. 

The  amount  of  cutting  and  filling  that  can  be  done  on  street 
and  lot  improvement  will  depend,  to  a  considerable  extent,  upon 
the  surplus  or  deficiency  of  material  that  will  be  available.  If 
there  is  a  deficiency  in  filling  material,  additional  cutting  on  the 
streets,  in  order  to  improve  grades  or  appearance,  or  excavation 
of  lots  which  are  above  grade,  will  be  indicated.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  there  is  a  surplus  of  excavation,  the  material  may  be 
used  to  advantage  in  filling  up  low  areas.     The  most  economi- 


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Fig.  13. — A  street  in  the  Dundalk  Housing  Project,  illustrating  effect  of  curvature 
and  wide  planting  strips. 

cal  results  will  be  obtained  when  the  necessary  cutting  and  filling 
balance  over  short  lengths  of  haul. 

With  regard  to  the  street  profile,  it  is  important  that  changes 
in  slope  should  be  made  by  easy  vertical  curves,  rather  than  by 
abrupt  changes.  Appearance,  particularly  the  view  obtained 
by  looking  along  the  street,  must  be  kept  in  mind,  and  it  is 
important  to  remember  that  a  too  frequent  repetition  of  vertical 
curves  on  straight  streets,  giving  the  effect  of  an  undulating  sur- 
face, is  particularly  displeasing.  Sumps,  or  low  places,  without 
surface  outlet  for  the  drainage,  should  be  avoided  if  possible,  to 
obviate  possibility  of  flooding. 

Easements. — Easements  may  be  reserved,  extending  through 
the  block  along  the  rear  lot  line,  for  the  specific  purpose  of  erect- 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  101 

ing  or  constructing,  using  and  maintaining  underground  utilities 
and  pole  lines.  The  rear  lot  lines  of  the  adjoining  property  will 
extend  to  the  center  of  the  easement,  and  the  title  of  the  land 
covered  by  casement  will  be  vested  in  the  abutting  owners. 
The  provisions  of  the  deeds,  however,  should  restrict  the  property 
owners  from  erecting  buildings  upon  the  easement,  and  will  give 
the  owner  or  builder  of  the  development,  or  the  municipality, 
the  right  to  construct,  or  to  give  official  authorization  to  a  cor- 
poration or  individual  to  enter  upon  and  construct  or  erect  the 
utilities.  Thereafter  the  right  will  exist  to  use,  maintain  and 
replace  the  same,  or  the  right  may  be  given  directly  to  a  public 
utility  company  or  companies,  as  the  case  may  be.  The  rights 
and  restrictions  of  the  easement  should  be  definitely  shown  upon 
the  property  map  and  should  be  fully  described  in  the  deeds. 

Easements  should  be  of  ample  width,  depending  on  the  space 
required  by  the  utility,  to  enable  substructures  to  be  repaired 
and  maintained,  without  encroaching  upon  the  unrestricted 
private  property  adjoining,  and  should  be  located  to  conform  as 
well  as  possible  to  the  requirements  of  alignment  of  the  various 
utilities.  Sharp  turns  and  irregular  alignment  will  be  particu- 
larly objectionable,  in  the  case  of  sewers  or  pole  lines,  and  there- 
fore should  be  avoided. 

Location  of  Street  Railways. — Ordinarily  street  railways  will 
be  located  in  the  center  of  the  paved  roadway.  Where  a  wide 
street,  however,  is  planned  and  warranted,  the  track  may  be 
placed  in  a  special  right  of  way,  with  a  small  planting  strip 
between  the  tracks  and  the  parkway  curbing.  Driveways  of 
the  required  width  will  then  be  located,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
(lack  with  cross-overs  at  important  street  intersections.  It 
will  be  preferable  for  the  municipality,  or  the  builder  of  the 
project,  to  retain  ownership  of  the  track  area,  unless  the  railway 
company  engages  to  maintain  the  same.  In  the  latter  case,  the 
necessary  crossings  over  the  right  of  way  should  be  reserved  as 
public  highways. 

It  may  also  be  advisable  to  consider  -an  alternative  location 
of  placing  the  track  on  one  side  of  the  street  between  the  curb 
and  the  sidewalk,  but  this  is  possible  only  when  a  wide  street, 
is  planned.  There  are  many  advantages  accruing  if  the  street 
car  track  can  be  located  away  from  t  he  paved  roadway.  Neither 
vehicular  nor  street  railway  traffic  will  be  obstructed  by  inter- 
ference, and  the  cost  of  the  maintenance  of  the  pavement  will  he 


102 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


materially  lessened.     Typical  and  suggestive   cross-sections  of 
streets  carrying  car  tracks  are  shown  in  Fig.  9. 

Utility  Location  a  Factor. —  The  close  relationship  which  exists 
between  the  location,  design  and  cost  of  the  utility  systems  and 
the  development  of  the  town  plan  is  a  most  important  consider- 
tion  that  must  not  be  forgotten  if  maximum  economy  is  to  be 
obtained.  An  important  illustration  of  this  relationship  will 
hereafter  be  discussed,  showing  the  relation  of  frontage  and 
depth  of  lots  to  the  cost  of  utilities  and  street  improvements. 
It  will  be  evident,  when  the  requirements  of  the  various  utilities 
are   considered  in  detail,   neglecting  the  variations   caused  by 


Fig.  14. — A  street  in  the  Sun  Hill  Project  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation. 

topographical  and  soil  conditions,  that  there  will  be  a  great 
difference  in  the  cost  of  development  and  provision  of  utilities 
for    different    town    layouts    of    the    same    tract    of    land. 

Drainage  and  sewerage  can  be  effected  far  more  economically 
if  reasonable,  consideration  is  given  to  the  requirements  of  lines 
and  grades.  The  location  of  a  street  in  a  valley  in  such  a  manner 
that  it  unnecessarily  crosses  the  drainage  line,  and  introduces 
rising  grades,  may  require  excessively  deep  cutting  for  the  sewer. 
Again,  it  may  be  possible  to  locate  a  cross  street  on  a  line  which  will 
serve  not  only  the  requirements  of  traffic  and  access,  but  also 
afford  the  best  available  location  for  the  sewers  or  drains.  If 
this  is  not  done,  it  may  be  necessary  to  undergo  extra  cost,  to 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  103 

lay  the  sewers  or  drains  on  private  easements,  or  to  follow  an 
indirect  route,  both  of  which  are  objectionable  for  many  reasons. 

The  location  of  overhead  pole  lines  on  easements  or  on  alleys 
extending  through  the  blocks,  and  the  relationship  with  house 
location  as  brought  out  in  Chapter  IX,  is  a  most  important  factor 
in  regard  to  the  installation  of  these  utilities.  There  is  a  growing 
realization  of  the  fact  that  a  large  part  of  pavement  maintenance 
is  chargeable  to  the  utilities  located  under  the  street  pavements. 
Accordingly,  there  is  a  tendency  to  remove  underground  struc- 
tures from  beneath  the  paved  roadway  to  the  greatest  possible 
extent. 

Further  discussion  of  recommended  practice  in  the  location 
of  utilities  and  substructures,  and  the  relation  to  street  location 
and  kind  of  surfacing  will  be  presented  in  other  chapters. 

Cost  of  Utilities  Affected  by  Lot  Sizes. — There  is  a  direct  relation 
netween  the  size  and  dimensions  of  the  lot  and  the  cost  of  street 
improvements  and  utilities,  the  full  importance  of  which  is  often 
not  fully  realized.  The  relative  effect  of  increasing  the  frontage 
and  depth  of  lots  on  cost  of  improvements  and  utilities  should  be 
taken  into  account  in  determining  the  location  and  placement 
of  the  house  on  the  lot.  The  following,  presented  by  the  author 
at  the  Ottawa  meeting  of  the  American  City  Planning  Institute, 
December,  1919,  is  a  brief  discussion  of  the  factors  concerned, 
illustrated  by  an  assumed  concrete  example: — 

"There  are  many  elements,  even  of  street  improvements  and  utilities, 
that  in  no  way  affect  the  size  of  the  lot,  or  are  affected  by  the  size  of  the 
lot.     For  example,  there  might  be  mentioned: 

"First. — Certain  portions  of  the  public  utilities  not  commonly  located 
in  streets,  such  as  the  water  supply,  pumping  station  and  filtration 
plant;  sewage  treatment  and  disposal  works;  the  power  plant  to  gene- 
rate electricity;  the  steam  plant,  in  the  event  that  the  houses  are  to  be 
heated  from  a  central  heating  station;  and  in  some  cases  a  gas  plant. 

"Second. — Various  trunk  supply  lines  which  lead  from  their  respective 
plants  to  the  town  site.  These  include  the  water  supply  trunk  lines; 
gas  and  steam  trunk  lines;  electrical  transmission  lines;  and  the  sewer 
and  storm  drain  outfalls. 

"Third. — Those  street  improvements  and  utilities  that  lie  directly 
in  front  of  the  house  and  that  parallel  the  depth  of  the  house.  These 
portions  of  the  utilities  and  street  improvements  are  really  more  affected 
by  the  size  and  arrangement  of  the  house  than  by  the  dimensions  of  the 
lot.  Likewise,  there  are  certain  elements  of  the  house  connections  which 
are  not  affected  by  the  size  of  the  lot;  for  example,  the  house  meters 


104 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


and  the  portion  of  the  house  services  that  lies  within  the  street.  In 
other  words,  only  that  portion  of  the  house  connection  that  lies  within 
the  yard  is  affected  by  the  size  of  the  lot. 

"Fourth. — The  street  improvements  and  utilities  which  lie  within  the 
street  intersection  are  not  directly  affected  by  the  size  of  the  lot,  but 
are  primarily  a  function  of  the  block  sub-division." 

As  a  result  of  the  above  processes  of  elimination,  it  is  possible 
to  make  a  clear,  well-defined  statement  of  those  elements  which 
directly  affect  the  size  and  depth  of  lots. 

1.  They  include  the  street  improvements  and  utilities  located  di- 
rectly in  front  of  the  space  lying  between  the  houses. 

2.  They  include  the  street  improvements  and  utilities  located  on  the 
minor  streets  and  lying  opposite  the  space  occupied  by  the  front  yards 
and  by  the  rear  yards. 

3.  They  include  those  portions  of  the  house  service  connections 
which  are  located  in  the  front  yards  and  in  the  rear  yards. 

Figures  shown  in  Table  10  are  the  cost  per  lineal  front  foot 
of  side  yard  and  per  lineal  foot  of  depth  of  front  and  rear  yards. 
Cost  per  lineal  foot  of  lot  frontage  and  depth  would  be  greater, 
as  the  cost  of  house  meters,  shut-off  valves,  etc.,  would  be 
included  in  the  latter  cost.  These  are  based  upon  the  same 
data  and  assumed  town  site  as  used  in  the  preparation  of 
Table  1. 

Table  10. — Cost  of  Utilities  and  Street  Improvements  Parallel  to 
Front  and  Side  Yard  Spaces 


Items 

Charge-     ]  Charge- 
able to  20    able  to  15 
feet  of      1    feet  of 
side              front 
yard              yard 

Charge- 
able to  59  Per  lin. 
feet  of    :foot  of 
rear           side 
yard          yard 

Per  lin. 
foot 
front 
yard 

Per  lin. 
foot 
rear 
yarb 

Street  improvements 

(with  land). 

$117.67 

IS.  00 
0.40 
15.00 
19 .  00 
10 .  50 
0.00 

$10.25 

2.6S 
0.00 
1.61 
0.94 
2.73 
27.60 

$40.30 

10.54 
0.00 
6.32 
3.69 

10.74 
0.00 

S5.S8 

0.90 
0.02 
0.75 
0.95 
0.53 
0.00 

$9.03 

$0.68 

0.18 
0.00 
0.11 
0.06 
0.18 
1.84 

$0.68 
0.18 

0.00 

0.11 

0.06 

0.18 

House  connections 

0  00 

$180.57 

$45.81 

$71.59 

$3.05 

$1.21 

Results  in  Table  10  show  that   if  the  space    between  houses 
on  main  streets  is  increased  one  foot,    the   cost  of  streets  and 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN 


105 


utilities  per  house  is  increased  $9.03.  Also,  if  the  front  yard 
is  increased  one  foot  in  depth,  the  cost  of  street  improvements 
and  utilities  per  house  is  increased  $3.05,  and  if  the  rear  yard  is 
increased  one  foot  in  depth,  the  cost  of  street  improvements  and 
utilities  per  house  is  increased  $1.21.  These  computations  also 
bring  out  the  fact  that  insofar  as  street  improvements  and 
utilities  are  concerned,  2.96  feet  can  be  added  to  the  depth  of 
front  yard,  or  7.46  feet  to  the  depth  of  rear  yard,  for  the  cost  of 
adding  one  foot  to  the  width  of  side  yard;  and  that  2.52  feet  can 
be  added  to  the  depth  of  rear  yard  for  the  cost  of  adding  one  foot 
to  the  depth  of  front  yard. 


6200 


6000 


o    5800 


S600 


o  5400 


5200 


5000 


1 

1 

■ — ^JooJ^ 

"         I 

oJ3S^- 

30 


32 


y, 


36 


44 


46 


38  40  42 

Lot  Frontage  in  Feet 

Fig.    15. — Diagram  showing  relation  between  lot  frontage  and  cost  per  house, 
including  land,  for  lot  depths  of  from  SO  to  160  feet;  based  on  assumed  average 

costs. 


In  a  lot  42  feet  front  by  100  feet  depth,  the  combined  cost  of 
land  and  lot  improvements  is  equal  to  $369.71  or  $8.80  per  front 
foot.  (See  Table  1,  Chapter  II).  If  to  this  cost  of  land  and 
lot  improvements  be  added  the  cost  of  utilitites  and  street  im- 
provements on  the  main  street  per  foot  of  side  yard,  the  total 
cost  per  lineal  foot  of  side  yard  is  $17.83  (obtained  by  adding 
$8.80  to  $9.03).  Assuming  rents  are  based  on  12  per  cent,  of 
gross  return,  the  cost,  in  rent  for  each  front,  foot  of  side  yard 
is  18  cents  per  month.  The  relation  between  lot  frontage  and 
the  cost  per  house  is  graphically  shown  in  Fig.  15. 


106  INDUSTRIAL 'HOUSING 

Although  no  general  conclusions  are  justified,  because  only 
one  assumed  industrial  town  site  has  been  discussed,  it  is  interest- 
ing to  note  that  cost  per  lot  for  "Street  Improvements  and 
Utilities"  in  this  case  is  $875.43,  compared  with  $369.71  for 
"Land  and  Lot  Improvements"; — the  latter  being  42  per  cent, 
of  the  former. 

If,  however,  the  cost  of  street  improvements  and  utilities  is 
compared  with  cost  of  lot  improvements  and  land,  each  directly 
chargeable  to  the  20  feet  of  side  yard,  they  are  respectively 
$180.57  and  $176.05  (Computed  from  Table  10).  In  other 
words,  granted  that  complete  utilities  and  street  improvements 
are  to  be  installed,  and  with  the  conditions  assumed  for  the 
purposes  of  this  discussion,  the  additional  cost  due  to  the  separa- 
tion of  the  houses  to  provide  side  yards,  is  due  in  an  equal  extent 
to  the  additional  cost  of  lot  improvements  and  land,  and  to  the 
additional  cost  of  utilities  and  street  improvements.  It  is  thus 
clear  that  the  cost  of  utilities  and  street  improvements  alone  does 
not  control  the  effect  on  cost  of  the  spacing  of  houses,  but  does 
maintain  a  direct  relation  to  the  lot  sizes. 

The  foregoing  example  is  a  problem  in  the  total  or  community 
economy  in  the  size  and  shape  of  lots,  and  for  this  reason  the 
estimates  include  all  items  affecting  the  gross  cost  of  the  lot. 
An  important  distinction  should  be  drawn  between  such  gross 
costs,  and  the  selling  price  or  ordinary  cost  of  the  house  and  lot 
to  the  purchaser. 

In  computing  the  latter,  the  cost  of  all  self-supporting  utility 
lines,  including  gas  systems,  electrical  transmission  and  distribu- 
tion systems,  water  supply  works  and  water  distribution  systems, 
and  telephone  trunks  and  lines  should  be  deducted  from  the 
foregoing  estimates,  for  the  reason  that  the  utility  rates  paid  by 
the  house  owner  (or  tenant)  cover  the  expense  of  these  services  in 
any  well  regulated  community.  A  part  of  the  cost  of  the  water 
works  system  may  be  paid  out  of  municipal  tax  levy,1  in  which 
case  such  charge  would  be  added  to  the  rental,  but  not  to  the 
selling  price. 

In  many  cases,  particularly  where  the  development  is  not 
directly  adjacent  to  existing  utility  systems,  the  land  company 
may  be  required  to  advance  all  or  a  certain  percentage  .of  the  cost 
of  installing  transmission  and  distribution  lines,  such  cost  later 
to  be  returned  out  of  revenues;  or  perchance  at  an  arbitrary 

1  See  page  188,  Chapter  VI, 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  107 

refund  rate  per  year.  In  such  contingency  only  the  actual  cost  of 
the  transaction  to  the  land  company  should  be  chargeable  against 
the  selling  price  of  the  lot. 

If  the  development  is  organized  as  a  municipality,  or  is  located 
in  an  existing  municipality,  it  is  customary  to  pay  the  cost  of 
such  trunk  sewers,  sewer  outfalls,  and  treatment  works  as  may 
be  required  out  of  tax  levy,  together  with  a  certain  percentage 
of  the  cost  of  the  laterals,  usually  from  10  to  35  per  cent.  The 
same  plan  generally  applies  to  street  surfacing  and  improvements, 
where  the  municipality  may  pay  from  10  to  66%  per  cent,  of 
the  total  cost  of  such  work.  In  these  cases  only  the  actual  cost 
assessed  against  the  adjoining  properties  is  to  be  directly  charged 
into  the  selling  price  of  the  lot,  although  all  such  charges  should 
be  represented  in  the  rental  figure,  which  includes  taxes. 

All  other  expenses  of  development,  however,  including  cost  of 
land  in  the  lot,  proportionate  cost  of  public  land  in  the  streets, 
etc.,  original  cost  of  laying  out  and  grading  streets,  lot  improve- 
ments, house  connections,  the  cost  of  the  house  itself,  all  adminis- 
trative, superintendence  and  overhead  charges  in  connection 
with  the  same,  together  with  interest  during  construction  and 
carrying  charges  thereafter,  are  directly  chargeable  into  the  cost 
of  the  lot  and  house. 

SUMMARY  OF  PROCEDURE 

It  will  be  found  that  the  town  plan  can  be  most  effectively 
prepared  if  a  program  substantially  in  accord  with  the  following 
is  adopted. 

a.  Secure  an  accurate  topographical  map,  based  on  a  careful  survey. 

b.  Make  a  careful  inspection  of  the  site,  and  an  examination  of  all 
physical  and  local  conditions  that  will  influence  the  plan. 

c.  Collect  and  consider  all  available  information  and  data  bearing 
upon  the  development  of  the  plan,  the  growth  of  the  community,  and 
districting. 

d.  Make  preliminary  study  and  prepare  general  plans  of  utility 
systems. 

e.  Make  a  preliminary  study  or  general  plan  of  the  street  system 
including  main  thoroughfares  and  arterial  streets,  which  may  be  con- 
veniently prepared  upon  a  reproduction  of  the  topographical  map. 

/.  Prepare  a  general  plan  showing  Mock  and  lot  subdivisions. 

g.  Make  study  for  districting  or  zoning  of  the  area  with  regard  to 
character  of  use,  area  occupied,  height  of  buildings,  and  prepare  building 
and  sanitary  regulations. 


108  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

h.  Make  a  house  location  plan,  showing  the  placement  or  spotting  of 
the  houses  on  the  lots. 

i.  Prepare  a  landscape  and  planting  plan,  showing  the  parks,  boule- 
vards and  parkways,  playgrounds  and  planting  of  these  areas,  streets 
and  individual  lots. 

j.  Prepare  working  and  detail  drawings  of  all  parts,  including  streets 
and  utility  systems,  modifying  as  relationships  develop. 

If  the  projected  development  is  of  relatively  small  size,  it 
may  be  advisable  to  reduce  the  number  of  plans  above  suggested, 
either  by  omission  or  by  combination. 

Topographical  Survey  and  Map. — The  first  step  in  the  pro- 
cedure is  to  make  a  topographical  survey  and  prepare  a  map  of 
the  area  to  be  improved.  If  the  plan  is  to  be  satisfactory  in  all 
its  details,  the  underlying  information  must  be  reasonably 
complete  and  accurate,  and  for  this  reason,  as  the  topographical 
map  will  be  the  basis  for  the  whole  design,  it  should  receive  the 
early  and  constant  attention  it  deserves. 

A  reasonable  degree  of  accuracy  should  be  fixed  and  thereafter 
maintained.  Triangulation  and  the  running  of  control  lines 
will  depend  as  to  extent  and  accuracy  upon  the  character  of  the 
topography  and  the  size  of  the  tract.  Important  points  and 
lines  should  be  well  referenced,  so  that  they  may  thereafter  be 
easily  located  and  identified. 

The  contour  intervals  to  be  adopted  will  depend  upon  the 
character  of  the  topography.  Where  steep  slopes  predominate, 
and  where  there  is  considerable  variation  in  elevation,  a  five-foot 
contour  interval,  which  is  the  maximum,  should  be  used;  where 
the  area  is  generally  level,  a  one-foot  contour  interval  will  be 
required.     Frequently  a  two-foot  contour  interval  will  suffice. 

The  maps  should  be  drawn  on  a  scale  of  from  1  inch  =  40 
feet,  to  1  inch  =  200  feet;  the  scale  being  dependent  upon 
the  size  of  the  tract  and  character  of  the  topography.  Preferably 
the  scale  should  not  exceed  100  feet  to  the  inch.  Duplication 
of  work  in  replotting  on  various  scales  should  be  avoided,  if 
possible,  by  adopting  a  scale  that  can  be  used  with  convenience 
for  different  purposes.  It  frequently  will  be  necessary  to  extend 
the  topography  somewhat  beyond  the  boundaries  of  the  develop- 
ment, in  order  that  the  improvements  within  the  site  may  be 
planned  with  due  regard  to  the  possibility  of  extension  into 
adjoining  areas. 

The  topographical  map  should  show  the  following: 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  109 

(a)  Boundaries  of  property  lines  of  the  trad  and  existing  subdivi- 
sions, if  any,  with  distances  and  bearings  or  deflections  indicated. 

(6)  Wooded  areas,  indicating  outlines  of  large  groups  or  groves  of 
trees;  individual  trees,  five  inches  or  larger;  indication  of  species  and 
condition. 

(r)  Natural  features,  as  water  courses,  with  high  and  low  water  lines; 
swamps  and  rock  out-crops;  sand  and  gravel  banks;  stone -quarries; 
nature  of  top  soil,  etc. 

(d)  Soil  and  foundation  conditions;  test  pits  and  borings;  ground 
water  elevations. 

(e)  Fence  and  wall  lines;  existing  roads  and  drives;  bridges;  culverts; 
street  improvements  and  utilities;  buildings;  steam  and  electric  railroad 
lines  and  sidings,  with  elevations  at  base  of  rail. 

(/)  Contour  lines. 

The  foregoing  should  be  indicated  by  easily  distinguished 
legends  or  conventions. 

Regional  Maps. — It  will  generally  be  advisable,  particularly 
when  new  street  and  utility  systems  are  to  be  planned,  to  prepare 
a  map  of  the  region,  wherein  the  development  is  located.  This 
is  for  the  purpose  of  studying  the  relation  of  the  project  to 
the  surrounding  district,  the  extension  of  existing  utilities,  and 
the  influence  and  relation  of  existing  and  projected  highways 
and  streets  to  those  of  the  proposed  town.  It  is  not  the  purpose 
of  such  regional  maps  to  portray  conditions  in  minute  detail, 
but  rather  in  such  a  way  as  to  enable  a  study  to  be  made  of 
problems  and  interrelationships  between  the  new  town  and  the 
surrounding  territory  and  neighboring  communities. 

It  will  further  be  convenient  to  showT  on  the  regional  map  im- 
portant features  of  existing  water  supply  and  sewerage  systems, 
main  traffic  lines;  freight  stations  and  yards,  and  other  informa- 
tion of  like  kind. 

The  labor  and  cost  of  preparing  the  regional  map  may  be 
reduced  by  utilizing  and  collating  existing  available  maps  and 
plans  of  the  municipal  and  public  service  companies.  Frequently 
the  topographical  sheets  of  the  United  States  Geological 
Survey  may  be  used  to  advantage,  as  a  base  or  general  map  for 
assembling  data  thereon. 

Site  Investigation. — Serious  delays  and  confusion  will  be 
avoided  and  better  coordination  in  design  obtained  if  a  thorough, 
and  preferably  a  joint  investigation,  of  the  site  is  made  by  those 
in  responsible  charge  of  the  town  planning,   architectural   and 


110  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

engineering  features  of  the  work.  There  is  no  better  way  to 
sense  and  evaluate  the  main  features,  conditions  and  problems 
than  by  such  investigations.  Many  mistakes  and  misconcep- 
tions will  thereby  be  avoided. 

The  main  purpose  will  be  to  obtain  first  hand  information  and 
impressions  to  serve  as  a  guide  in  later  formulating  the  planning 
and  construction  policies,  and  to  aid  in  the  interpretation  of  maps 
and  data.  The  soil  conditions,  for  instance,  will  be  of  interest 
to  the  engineer  and  the  architect  alike.  There  will  further  be 
many  points  relative  to  opportunities  for  location  of  sidings  and 
yards,  the  planning  of  construction  roads  and  similar  features, 
that  will  be  of  value  in  planning  the  town  and  the  construction 
program. 

Preliminary  Town  Plan. — The  preliminary  town  plan  will  be 
developed  to  determine  the  main  features,  especially  those  which 
are  dictated  by  the  existing  conditions  and  topography,  existing 
highways,  transportation  and  utility  systems.  In  forming 
the  plan,  not  only  the  principal  requirements  of  the  street 
system,  but  those  of  the  best  utilization  of  the  land  as  to  commer- 
cial and  residence  districts,  larger  parks,  the  utilities  and  of  the 
various  types  of  buildings  are  to  be  considered. 

It  will  be  convenient  to  project  this  study  on  a  positive  Van 
Dyke  or  gelatine  reproduction  of  the  base  topographical  map, 
so  that  copies  can  be  used  for  revision  and  for  the  development 
of  the  utilities  systems.  Trial  profiles  and  cross-sections  of  the 
streets  should  be  worked  up  at  the  same  time. 

Final  Plan  of  Development. — The  preliminary  town  plan  will 
be  subjected  to  such  modifications  and  revisions  as  may  be  neces- 
sary to  produce  a  well  balanced,  consistent,  efficient  and  econo- 
mic plan.  This  will  require  adjustment,  the  degree  depending 
upon  the  relative  importance  of  the  design  of  the  street  system, 
those  of  the  various  utilities,  and,  particularly,  the  requirements 
of  the  houses,  as  has  been  hitherto  discussed  under  property  sub- 
division. 

The  complete  town  plan  should  show  the  street  system  in  detail, 
including  the  name,  widths  and  grades  of  the  highways;  the  various 
features  of  the  plan,  including  the  civic  center,  schools,  etc. ;  the 
subdivision  of  the  property  into  blocks  and  lots;  set-back  lines, 
open  spaces,  parks,  etc.  The  plan  should  contain  essential 
information  as  to  distances  and  geometry  which  will  enable  it  to 
be  staked  on  the  ground.     Frequently  such  plan  can  be  later 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  111 

filed  in  the  office  of  record  in  connection  with  the  dedication  of 
streets  and  the  recording  of  the  sub-division  and  the  decision  as 
to  scale  should  be  based  on  such  a  use. 

The  adopted  town  plan  will  include  profiles  of  the  various 
streets  showing  the  established  grades  thereof.  The  latter  is 
important  on  account  of  the  legal  significance  and  practical 
value. 

Detail  and  Working  Plans. — Detail  and  working  plans  will  be 
required  for  the  various  parts  of  the  work.  The  number,  variety 
and  scale  of  these  plans  will  depend  upon  the  scope  of  the  work 
and  upon  conditions  and  variety  of  detail. 

Grading  plans  for  the  general  improvement  of  the  site  and  final 
grading  of  the  lots  will  be  essential  to  determine  the  best  ele- 
vation of  the  houses  and  the  quantity  and  disposition  of  material. 
The  topographic  map  may  be  used  for  working  out  the  general 
scheme  and  to  determine  approximate  quantities,  but  to  be 
efficacious  for  field  use  should  be  on  a  scale  of  not  less  than  one 
inch  to  100  feet;  preferably  one  inch  to  50  feet.  Detail  cross- 
sections  of  cellars,  lots,  sidewalks  and  streets  may  be  required 
for  this  purpose. 

It  will  often  be  economical  to  prepare  working  drawings  to  a 
scale  of  forty  feet  to  the  inch  or  less,  to  show  the  lines  and  ele- 
vations for  lot  grading,  planting,  house  walks  and  house  location. 
The  same  sheets,  or  reproductions  thereof,  can  later  be  used 
as  a  base  plan  for  record  drawings  of  utilities. 

RECENT  COMMUNITY  DEVELOPMENTS 

Ojibway,  Ontario. — -The  plan  of  the  projected  town  of  Ojib- 
way,  Canada,  contains  a  number  of  interesting  features  which 
will  serve  to  illustrate  some  of  the  points  heretofore  discussed. 
This  plan  was  prepared  by  the  late  Owen  Brainard,  with 
Carrere  and  Hastings  as  Town  Planners,  in  association  with  the 
author  as  Engineer,  to  provide  housing  for  employees  of  the 
new  plant  of  the  Canadian  Steel  Company,  Limited,  at  Ojibway 
near  Windsor,  Ontario,  Canada. 

As  will  be  seen  in  Fig.  3,  the  street  system  is  on  the  rec- 
tangular plan,  with  a  radiating  system  of  diagonal  streets,  serv- 
ing as  main  and  secondary  arteries.  The  tract  reserved  for  the 
town  consists  of  about  650  acres  of  nearly  level  ground, 
the  maximum  difference  in  elevation  of  the  surface  being  about 
8  feet.     When  fully  developed,  the  town  will  provide  for  about 


112  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

21,000  people,  housed  in  detached  houses,  on  lots  generally  of 
35  feet  frontage  and  120  feet  in  depth.  The  towns  of  Windsor 
and  Walkerville  he  to  the  north,  and  the  steel  plant  to  the  west, 
between  the  town  and  the  Detroit  River.  An  electric  railway 
line  is  located  on  Main  Street  and  provides  rapid  transit  to  Wind- 
sor, Walkerville  and  other  local  points.  The  tracks  of  the  Essex 
Terminal  Railroad  are  parallel  to  and  located  directly  in  the  rear 
of  the  blocks  fronting  on  the  west  side  of  Main  Street.  Import- 
ant existing  through  highways  include  a  road  lying  some  distance 
east  of  and  roughly  paralleling  the  town  site,  and  Machette 
Road,  also  an  important  highway,  which  passes  through  the  de- 
velopment approximately  on  the  line  of  H  Street. 

The  principal  features  in  the  plan  are  as  follows: — 

Main  Street,  with  a  width  of  100  feet,  will  provide  for  business 
and  small  local  industries  which  will  be  attracted  there  by  reason 
of  the  street  railway,  the  siding  facilities  of  the  properties  on  the 
west  side  of  the  street,  and  the  proximity  to  the  plant.  The 
higher  class  commercial  establishments  and  amusements,  to- 
gether with  the  community  or  civic  center,  will  be  located  in  the 
area  immediately  east  of  Main  Street  and  bounded  by  16th 
Street,  G  Street  and  12th  Street. 

Ample  provision  is  made  in  the  planning  of  the  main  thorough- 
fares for  the  requirements  of  through  traffic  and  inter-communi- 
cation, not  only  as  concerns  the  development,  but  also  the 
undeveloped  territory  adjoining  to  the  east  and  south.  Through 
traffic  from  the  southeast,  coming  over  the  existing  Machette 
Road,  by  following  the  line  of  South  Avenue  and  G  Street,  will 
be  diverted  from  the  business  center. 

The  main  thoroughfares  are  from  100  to  160  feet  in  width,  and 
are  generally  provided  with  central  parkways.  The  secondary 
streets  are  86  feet  in  width,  with  central  parking  area.  A  fur- 
ther prominent  feature  of  the  street  system  is  a  parkway  300  feet 
in  width,  with  a  wide  central  parked  area  extending  from  the 
commercial  district  to  G  Street,  the  main  north  and  south 
street.  The  residential  districts  are  laid  out  with  50-foot  streets. 
Alleys  are  not  provided  except  in  the  commercial  district. 

The  street  system  was  adopted  only  after  thorough  investi- 
gation had  been  made  of  the  requirements  of  traffic  and  utility 
location,  particularly  that  of  sewerage  and  drainage;  the  radiat- 
ing system  of  main  highways  lends  itself  readily  to  these  requir- 
ments. 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN  113 

Loveland  Farms.— The  street  plan  of  Loveland  Farms  is  an 
excellent  example  of  the  adaptability  and  economy  of  the  use  of 
contour  streets  in  the  development  of  a  site  characterized  by 
rugged  and  broken  topography.  This  development  was  designed 
by  John  Nolen,  as  Planner,  with  the  author  as  Engineer.  The 
project  was  built  by  the  Youngstown  Sheet  &  Tube  Company, 
for  the  purpose  of  providing  modern  type  homes  for  skilled  em- 
ployees, foremen  and  superintendents.  The  site  is  just  beyond 
the  city  limits  of  Youngstown,  Ohio,  and  south  of  the  Mahoning 
River.  The  gross  area  of  the  tract  is  220  acres;  area  of  streets 
24"  acres;  gross  area  of  parks  and  open  spaces,  5  per  cent.;  net 
building  or  saleable  area,  71  per  cent.,  or  156  acres;  approxi- 
mate number  of  lots,  1,000;  average  lot  area,  0.158  acres,  or 
about  6,500  square  feet. 

It  will  be  noted  that  the  street  plan,  which  is  shown  in  Fig. 
2,  is  composed  very  largely  of  curvilinear  streets ;  in  fact  about 
67  per  cent,  of  the  streets  are  so  designed.  The  plan  of  the 
streets  was  dictated  by  the  topography,  which  is  severe,  and  by 
the  adjoining  existing  roads.  Poland  Avenue,  Loveland  Road, 
Midlothian  Boulevard  and  Oakland  Avenue  were  existing 
improved  streets  and  form  the  boundaries  of  the  site.  Poland 
Avenue,  a  main  thoroughfare  occupied  by  a  2-track  street 
railway,  furnishing  transportation  facilities  from  Youngstown 
to  the  site  and  points  beyond,  is  the  northerly  boundary. 

The  ground  rises  from  Poland  Avenue,  which  has  an  elevation 
of  from  860  to  870  feet  to  a  maximum  elevation  of  1030  at  the 
southwest  corner  of  the  plot.  The  ground  surface  is  further 
broken  by  ravines  extending  back  from  Poland  Avenue.  The 
main  streets,  following  the  contours,  are  laid  out  on  approxi- 
mately concentric  circular  arcs,  with  an  approximate  center  at 
the  summit  of  Ridge  wood  Road  near  the  southwestern  corner  of 
the  plot.  Streets  leading  to  Poland  Avenue  generally  follow  the 
line  of  ravines,  which  afford  the  most  favorable  location,  and 
make  possible  an  effective  subdivision  of  the  adjoining  property, 
which  otherwise  would  be  difficult. 

The  chief  features  of  this  plan  are  the  economy  of  site  develop- 
ment and  improvement,  the  effective  subdivision  of  the  property 
and  good  street  grades  obtained  on  a  very  hilly  site.  The  use 
of  court  streets,  to  develop  deep  blocks  upon  steep  hillsides,  will 
be  noted. 

As  the  facilities  offered  by  existing  highways  and  topographical 


114  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

barriers  made  a  minor  consideration  of  the  necessity  for  providing 
for  through  traffic,  the  streets  within  the  development  are  mainly 
laid  out  to  provide  good  building  frontage,  access,  and  inter- 
communication, with  reasonable  facilities  for  traffic  passing 
through  the  plot  in  an  easterly  direction  from  Powers  Way  and 
other  connections.  The  character  of  the  development  will  be 
entirely  residential,  except  for  a  small  business  district  to  be 
located  in  the  vicinity  of  Ridge  wood  Road  and  Ohio  Square. 
The  street  widths  are  40,  50  and  60  feet,  with  roadways  of  18, 
24  and  32  feet,  respectively.  Sidewalks  are  4  feet  wide  on  the 
40-foot  streets  and  5  feet  in  width  on  the  other  streets. 

Yorkship  Village. — Yorkship  Village  was  the  largest  govern- 
mental housing  project  constructed  during  the  War.  It  is  of 
great  interest  not  only  on  account  of  its  size,  but  for  the  reason 
that  the  plan  contains  many  unique  features  and  represents  great 
advance  in  the  planning  and  development  of  large  towns  for 
industrial  workers.  The  town  was  planned  under  the  general 
supervision  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation,  for  the  Fairview 
Realty  Company,  a  subsidiary  of  the  New  York  Shipbuilding 
Company,  for  the  shipyard  employees  of  that  company  in  Cam- 
den, N.  J.  Electus  Litchfield  was  Architect  and  Town  Planner, 
and  Lockwood,  Green  &  Company,  the  Engineers.  (For  street 
and  block  plan  see  Fig.  16.) 

The  tract  lies  at  the  southerly  extremity  of  Camden,  N.  J.,  and 
has  recently  been  annexed  to  that  municipality.  The  site  is  a 
practically  level  tract  of  land  bordered  on  the  north,  south  and 
west  by  small  tidal  streams,  or  estuaries,  whose  marginal  mud 
flats  and  high  water  fines  limited  and  defined  the  useful  area  in 
these  directions.  The  Mt.  Ephriam  Pike,  an  improved  high- 
way, is  the  easterly  boundary  of  the  plan,  and  affords  a  highway 
connection  to  Camden.  Collings  Road  traverses  the  site  from 
east  to  west  and  provides  an  existing  highway  leading  directly 
to  Broadway,  a  main  thoroughfare  in  Gloucester  which  extends 
along  the  river  from  Camden.  An  extension  of  a  street  railway 
on  a  private  right  of  way,  from  the  main  line  on  Broadway  in 
Gloucester  to  the  project,  which  it  enters  on  Collings  Road, 
affords  street  car  service  to  the  shipyard,  Camden  and  local 
points. 

By  reason  of  the  foregoing  condition,  and  with  the  exception 
of  the  existing  highways  before  noted,  whose  influence  on  the 
organization  of  the  plan  will  be  apparent,  the  site  was  isolated 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWN  PLAN 


115 


from  Camden  and  was  therefore  to  be  developed  as  an  independ- 
ent  community.     The   necessity  of    providing    a    more    direct 


route  for  pedestrian  and  vehicular  traffic  from  the  town  to  the 
shipyard,  which  lies  within  walking  distance  to  the  northwest, 


116 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


imposed  a  further  condition  which  greatly  influenced  the  develop- 
ment of  the  town  plan.  This  connection  was  accomplished  by 
building  a  concrete  arch  bridge,  crossing  the  branch  of  Newton 
Creek  to  the  north  of  the  town,  and  opening  up  a  new  street 
leading  to  Morgan  Street  in  Camden.  This  latter  street  leads 
to  Broadway  and  the  shipyard  plant. 

The  main  approach  street,  which  is  also  the  main  axis  of  the 
layout,  is  a  parkway  120  feet  in  width,  extending  from  the  bridge 
to  a  central  square,  which  was  planned  to  be  the  social  and 
community  center  of  the  town.  About  this  square  are  located 
the  more  pretentious  buildings,  including  apartment  houses, 
stores  and  a  projected  community  building.     A  park  area  140 


Fig.   17. — Yorkship  Village;  the  central  square  and  parkway. 

feet  in  width  extends  westward  from  the  square  and  constitutes 
the  minor  axis  of  the  plan,  and  affords  an  excellent  location  for 
churches.  Radial  streets  extend  from  the  southwestern  and 
southeastern  corners  of  the  square  to  Collings  Road. 

The  central  features  of  the  plan  have  a  decided  element  of 
formal  organization  which  does  not  predominate  in  the  outlying 
section.  While  curved  streets  are  used  to  a  limited  extent, 
frequent  angles,  combined  with  effective  placement  of  dwellings 
and  features,  make  for  attractiveness  and  interest.  The  easterly 
section,  the  streets  of  which  are  laid  out  as  concentric  circular 
arcs,  was  designed  after  the  plans  of  the  main  portion  of  the  town 
had  been  adopted. 

The  total  developed  area  is  179.1  acres;  area  of  lots  is  80.4 


DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  TOWS  PL  AS  117 

acres,  or  44.9  per  cent.;  sites  for  special  buildings,  1.8  acres,  or 
1  per  cent.;  schools,  recreational  and  community  purposes,  in- 
cluding parks  and  playgrounds,  35.6  acres,  or  19.8  per  cent.; 
area  of  streets  and  alleys,  61.3  acres,  or  34.3  per  cent. 

The  town  includes  1,386  dwellings,  of  which  1,018  are  in  rows 
and  the  balance  detached  and  semi-detached  houses.  There  are 
also  four  apartment  buildings,  one  hotel,  and  eight  stores.  There 
are  16.45  dwellings  per  acre  of  lot  area,  the  average  lot  containing 
2,526  square  feet.  The  gross  building  density  is  7.8  dwellings 
per  acre  of  the  developed  land,  including  lots,  streets  and  other 
areas. 


CHAPTER  V 
STREETS  AND  PAVEMENTS 

Classification   of   Streets — Pavement   Design — Type    and 
Materials  of  Pavements — Accessory  Structures 

The  paving  and  appearance  of  the  streets  of  a  community  is 
one  of  the  first  things  which  attracts  the  attention  of  the  visitor 
and  also  greatly  affects  the  comfort  and  convenience  of  the  resi- 
dents. It  is  an  item  on  which  either  too  great  or  too  small  a 
sum  may  readily  be  spent,  and  a  very  careful  engineering  study 
and  planning  are  necessary  to  determine  the  proper  design  so  that 
the  utmost  utility  and  economy  is  subserved. 

CLASSIFICATION  OF  STREETS 

The  general  plan  of  the  street  system,  together  with  the  classi- 
fication of  streets  and  their  location  has  already  been  considered 
in  the  preceding  chapter. 

Widths  for  Different  Services. — The  importance  of  streets  is 
determined  by  the  character  of  the  expected  traffic.  Width, 
even  more  than  the  character  of  the  pavement,  indicates  this 
importance.  WidJhs^^Lstreets  are  determined  by  the  volume 
and  character  of  the  traffic  winch  will  use  them.  American 
municipal  practice  in  fixing  street  and  roadway  widths  has  been, 
to  a  very  large  extent,  controlled  by  local  practice  and  by  too 
strict  adherence  to  artificial  standards.  ^Street  widths  cannot  be 
standardized,  although  the  maximum  and  minimum  may  be 
defined,  which  should  not  be  departed  from  except  under  unusual 
circumstances.  See  Fig.  9  for  typical  street  widths  and  cross- 
sections. 

In  some  communities  there  has  been  a  tendency  to  make  widths 
of  streets  and  roadways  entirely  too  narrow;  in  others,  particu- 
larly in  the  middle  west,  roadways  of  unusual  widths  are  often 
required  by  municipal  ordinance.  The  latter  are  objectionable, 
as  they  increase  the  cost  of  improvements,  street  cleaning  and 
replacement.  Arterial  or  main  traffic  streets  often  become  con- 
gested and  sub-arterial  and  residential  streets  frequently  are  of 
greater  width  than  economy  requires.     Traffic  may  be  forced  to 

118 


STREETS  AND  PA  VEMEN  TS  119 

seek  streets  which  are  designed  to  care  for  the  lightest  travel  only, 
thus  causing  a  rapid  deterioration  of  the  surface.  The  results 
of  such  a  policy  will  prove  expensive  to  the  community  and  waste 
valuable  space.  The  logical  method  is  to  base  the  required 
width  of  roadway  upon  the  number  of  traffic  lines  which  the 
roadway  pavement  must  accomniqdatej_d.ue  consideration  being 
given  to  the  gradual  increase  in  recent^  years  of  both  the  width 
and~spee_cLpfjvrehicles. 

Arterial  or  Main  Traffic- — Such  main  thoroughfares  will  be 
required  to  carry  the  street  cars  and  bus  lines,  in  addition  to  the 
usual  vehicles;  and  provision  for  these  should  be  made  at  the 
time  of  the  design,  wherever  they  will  be  required  in  the  future. 
Street  car  tracks  should  preferably  be  placed  in  the  center  of  the 
roadway,  and  it  is  desirable  that  they  be  on  a  separate  right  of 
way,  which  may  be  divided  from  the  rest  of  the  street  by  a  curb. 
This  will  allow  the  cars  to  move  at  a  greater  speed  and  with 
less  danger  to  other  traffic.  The  increased  speed  thus  made 
possible  will  extend  the  available  zone  of  residences  for  the  com- 
munity, by  lessening  the  time  required  for  transit  from  home  to 
the  business  district. 

On  arterial  and  main  business  streets  provision  should  be 
made  for  two,  four  or  more  lines  of  traffic  and  either  a  single 
or  double  track  car  line.  In  addition  to  this  a  sidewalk  should 
of  course,  be  provided  on  each  side  of  the  street.  The  increased 
speed,  at  which  traffic  moves  in  well  regulated  communities,  re- 
quires a  comfortable  clearance.  This  indicates  a  minimum  width 
for  each  line  of  vehicular  traffic  of  at  least  eight  feet,  and  pre- 
ferably nine  feet.  The  lower  figure  can  be  used  where  several 
lines  are  provided  for,  and  the  latter  on  the  narrower  streets. 

The  width  of  sidewalks  on  a  business  street  should  never  be 
less  than  12  ft.  and  in  larger  communities,  and  on  important 
streets,  may  exceed  this  amount.  This  entire  width  need  not 
be  paved  in  the  early  period  of  the  life  of  the  community,  but 
this  space  should  be  reserved  for  public  use. 

A  typical  determination  of  the  width  of  an  arterial  street  is 
as  follows  : 

Two  lines  of  parked  vehicles 1G  feet 

Four  lines  of  traffic 36  feet 

Two  car  tracks 20  feet 

Two  sidewalks 28  feet 


Total 100  feet 


120  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

This  example  indicates  the  width  for  a  street  of  this 
class  in  a  community  where  growth  may  be  expected;  lesser 
widths  may  be  used  in  certain  cases  by  using  fewer  multiples. 
The  whole  breadth  need  not  be  paved  until  the  volume  of  traffic 
demands  it.  A  planting  space  may  be  reserved  on  each  side  of 
the  paved  section  of  the  street,  which  later  may  be  assigned  to 
the  use  of  traffic  when  required;  or  the  additional  width  may  be 
temporarily  allotted  to  the  abutters  for  front  yards,  with  reser- 
vations requiring  that  the  building  lines  be  kept  back  the  desired 
distance. 

Subarterial  or  Secondary. — Subarterial  streets  may  vary  con- 
siderably in  width,  because  of  the  different  sizes  and  character  of 
the  districts  which  they  serve. 

The  roadway  should  contain  space  for  at  least  two  lines  of 
traffic  and  parking  space  at  either  side,  and  it  may  often  be 
necessary  to  provide  for  four  lines  of  traffic.  Very  frequently 
a  single  track  car  line  will  be  required  to  lead  from  the  main 
thoroughfare  to  the  subsidiary  district.  The  sidewalks  should 
be  allowed  a  space  of  at  least  12  ft.,  part  of  which  may  be  utilized 
as  a  planting  space.  A  typical  design  of  the  width  of  a  sub- 
arterial street  is  given  below: 

One  car  track 10  feet 

Two  lines  of  traffic 20  feet 

Two  parking  lines 16  feet 

Two  sidewalks  and  margins 24  feet 

Total 70  feet 

In  the  smaller  industrial  communities,  which  are  adjacent 
to  larger  towns,  the  streets  here  classified  as  subarterial  may 
be  then  called  the  principal  streets.  In  such  cases  the  car 
track  is  frequently  not  required,  and  occasionally  the  total  width 
between  property  lines  may  not  exceed  50  ft.  This  is  the  ab- 
solute minimum  which  is  to  be  recommended  for  streets  serving 
more  than  the  lightest  residential  traffic.  This  width  may  be 
divided  as  follows: 

Two  sidewalks  and  margins 24  feet 

One  parking  line 8  feet 

Two  lines  of  traffic 18  feet 


Total 50  feet 


STREETS  AND  PAVEMENTS  121 

This  gives  a  roadway  26  ft.  in  width,  with  a  12-ft.  space  on 
each  side  for  sidewalk  and  planting. 

Ordinarily  subarterial  streets  should  not  be  designed  less  than 
60  ft.  in  width  and  usually  they  will  not  exceed  80  ft. 

Residential  Streets.- — -The  function  of  the  residential  street  is 
to  furnish  access,  light  and  air  to  the  abutters.  Traffic  should 
be  confined  to  pleasure  vehicles  and  the  delivery  of  domestic 
supplies. 

In  the  industrial  community  residential  streets  may  vary  some- 
what in  character.  A  large  part  of  the  buildings  facing  on  one 
street  may  be  apartment  dwellings,  on  another  the  larger  homes 
of  superintendents,  foremen  and  the  like,  and  on  another  the 
less  expensive  homes  of  the  unskilled  laborer.  The  residents 
on  the  first  two  streets  will  desire  and  will  be  able  to  pay  for 
wider  streets,  and  consequently  it  may  be  desirable  to  give 
them  extra  width  to  allow  for  planting  and  for  the  larger 
amount  of  traffic  which  such  districts  will  require.  Such  streets 
may  be  from  50  to  80  ft.  in  width  but  ordinarily  will  not  exceed 
60  ft.  The  design  given  below  is  well  adapted  to  the  more 
important  residential  streets  in  many  industrial  developments. 

Two  sidewalks  and  planting  strips 26  feet 

Two  lines  of  parked  vehicles 16  feet 

Two  lines  of  traffic 18  feet 

Total 60  feet 

This  design  provides  a  roadway  of  34  ft.,  with  a  sidewalk 
and  planting  space  on  each  side  of  13  ft. 
A  more  pretentious  design  is  as  follows: 

Two  sidewalks  and  planting  strips 26  feet 

Two  lines  of  parked  vehicles 16  feet 

Two  lines  of  traffic 18  feet 

Central  planting  strip 20  feet 

Total 80  feet 

By  far  the  greater  number  of  people  live  on  what  may  be 
called  minor  residential  streets,  which  are  side  streets  leading 
from  arterial,  sub-arterial  and  principal  residence  streets.  These 
streets  should  seldom  be  less  than  40  ft.  in  width,  except  in 
special  cases,  such  as  hillside  streets  with  dwellings  facing  on 
one  side  only.  This  width  of  40  ft.  is  required  in  order  to  give 
a  desirable  amount  of  light  and  air  and  to  present  a  desirable 
appearance. 


122  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

The  paved  portion  of  such  a  street  should  never  be  less  than 
18  ft.  in  width  and  many  engineers  are  recommending  20  ft.  as 
a  desirable  minimum.  This  width  allows  two  vehicles  to  pass  at 
a  fair  rate  of  speeds  without  danger  of  crowding  the  curb.  In 
a  typical  40-ft.  minor  residential  street,  20  ft.  is  allotted  to  paved 
surface  and  20  ft.  to  planting  strips  and  sidewalks. 

PAVEMENT  DESIGN 

The  principal  details  of  design  center  about  the  important 
items  of  grade,  foundation,  subsurface  and  surface  drainage. 

Grades. — The  subject  of  grades  has  been  touched  on  in  the 
preceding  chapter  but  will  be  discussed  here  in  more  detail. 
This  question  must  of  course  be  considered  in  making  the  lay- 
out for  a  town,  but  it  again  becomes  one  of  the  important  engi- 
neering considerations  in  the  design  of  the  pavement.  This 
illustrates  the  necessity  of  developing  all  parts  of  the  design  of 
an  industrial  community  under  one  organization  and  head,  in 
order  that  such  problems  may  be  well  coordinated  and  the  utmost 
economy  secured. 

jX  While  much  of  the  present  day  hauling  is  done  by  motor 
trucks,  which  can  climb  grades  that  are  too  steep  for  heavy 
horse-drawn  vehicles,  the  latter  are  still  used  to  some  extent. 
Therefore,  on  arterial  streets,  subject  to  this  kind  of  traffic,  the 
heavy  horse-drawn  vehicle  limits  the  maximum  grade.  For  a 
heavy  team,  operating  without  brakes,  5  per  cent,  is  the  steepest 
grade  which  can  safely  be  used,  and  this  should  not  be  exceeded 
on  streets  carrying  heavy  traffic  in  localities  where  it  is  not 
customary  to  use  brakes. 

The  cost  of  hauling  also  enters  into  the  determination  of 
the  maximum  grade  of  arterial  streets,  as  this  increases  very 
rapidly  as  the  grade  increases.  Wherever  it  is  at  all  possible, 
5  per  cent,  should  be  set  as  the  maximum  for  arterial  streets, 
and  this  grade  should  be  exceeded  only  for  very  short  distances 
on  sub-arterial  streets;  less  than  this  is  of  course  very  desirable. 

Important  residential  streets  should  not  be  laid  out  where 
it  is  not  possible  to  keep  the  grade  down  to  about  the  limit 
mentioned  above.  On  minor  residential  streets  the  grades  may 
at  times  be  as  great  as  10  per  cent,  for  a  short  distance,  but, 
except  under  very  unusual  circumstances,  should  not  exceed  this. 
Seven  or  eight  per  cent,  is  considered  a  desirable  maximum  for 
such  streets. 


STREETS  AND  PA  VEMENTS  123 

In  some  industrial  communities,  the  selection  of  the  type  of 
pavement  is  restricted,  due  to  some  special  condition  such  as 
availability  of  certain  materials.  The  maximum  allowable  grade 
then  will  be  determined  as  that  which  is  suitable  for  the 
indicated  type  of  pavement.  The  following  table  gives  the 
maximum  allowable  grades  for  different  kinds  of  pavement,  as 
recommended  by  the  Special  Committee  on  Materials  for  Road 
Construction  and  on  Standards  for  their  Test  and  Use  of  the 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers  in  its  final  report: 

Table    11. — Maximum   Allowable   Grades  for  Pavements 


Kind  of  pavement 


Maximum  allowable 
grade,  per 
cent. 


Broken  stone 

Bituminous  concrete 

Bituminous  macadam 

Cement  concrete 

Bituminous  surface  on  gravel . 

Sheet  asphalt 

Brick — bituminous  filler 

Brick — cement  grout  filler.  .  .  . 
Stone  block — grout  filler 


12 
8 
8 
8 
6 
5 

12 
6 
9 


Foundations. — The  stability  and  permanence  of  a  pavement 
depends  to  a  great  extent  on  the  stability  of  the  foundation.  If 
the  foundation  is  weak  or  unstable,  ruts  and  depressions  form, 
and  the  pavement  deteriorates  rapidly. 

The  essential  precautions  which  must  be  taken  in  order  to 
insure  a  good  foundation  are  as  follows: 

1.  Removal  of  vegetable,  perishable  and  yielding  material. 

2.  Thorough  compacting  of  the  subsoil  with  heavy  roller. 

3.  Drainage  of  the  subsoil. 

The  first  two  items  are  self-explanatory.  The  third,  which  is 
of  prime  importance,  will  be  covered  in  the  next  section.  Every 
load  which  comes  upon  the  pavement  must  be  carried  ultimately 
by  the  subgrade.  Hence  it  is  of  the  greatest  importance  that 
this  be  sufficiently  strong  and  stable  to  carry  the  greatest  load 
which  it  will  be  called  upon  to  bear. 

Very  few  States  have  as  yet  fixed  the  allowable  loads  on  high- 
ways, but  many  are  now  considering  this  problem.     In  a  short 


124  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

time  we  may  expect  to  see  reasonable  limits  established,  which 
will  prevent  the  occasional  extremely  heavy  loads  which  have 
destroyed  a  large  number  of  pavements  and  foundations. 

It  is  often  necessary  to  use  an  artificial  foundation,  due  to  fills, 
yielding  or  spongy  material,  or  material  of  a  perishable  nature, 
or  to  support  a  wearing  surface  incapable  of  taking  bending 
stresses.  The  materials  frequently  used  for  such  foundations 
are  lump  slag,  broken  stone,  gravel,  rough  stone,  or  cement  con- 
crete. The  first  three  are  ordinarily  used  as  in  a  macadam  road, 
being  well  consolidated  under  the  roller;  the  wearing  surface  is 
then  laid  upon  the  foundations.  Rough  stone  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended, except  in  special  cases.  The  present  high  cost  of 
Telford  construction,  together  with  its  disadvantages  cause  it  to 
be  less  favorably  considered  in  most  sections  of  this  country. 

Cement  concrete  is  the  most  widely  used  artificial  foundation, 
and  a  most  satisfactory  one.  It  furnishes  a  smooth  unyielding 
surface  for  the  laying  of  the  wearing  course,  is  strong  enough  to 
properly  distribute  the  imposed  load  on  the  subsoil,  and  under 
proper  conditions  is  practically  permanent.  It  is  used  to  a  great 
extent  as  a  foundation  for  asphalt,  bituminous  concrete,  and 
brick  and  block  pavements  which  would  rapidly  break  up  if  not 
supported  by  a  rigid  base.  Concrete  for  a  foundation  need  not 
be  of  as  good  quality  as  when  used  for  a  pavement  without  a 
wearing  surface,  and  it  need  not  be  so  well  finished.  Mixtures 
as  lean  as  1:3^:7  have  been  used,  although  1:2^:5  is  recom- 
mended, except  under  unusually  favorable  conditions.  It  is 
constructed  as  later  described  under  "Cement  Concrete  Pave- 
ments." 

Subdrainage. — As  previously  stated,  no  matter  what  the 
paving  surface  of  a  street  may  be,  the  load  which  the  traffic 
imposes  on  it  must  ultimately  be  carried  by  the  subgrade.  This 
must  be  stable  or  the  pavement  will  ultimately  break  up,  and  the 
money  expended  for  it  will  be  lost.  The  supporting  power  of  the 
subgrade  is  to.  a  great  extent  reduced  when  it  becomes  wet,  and 
hence  it  is  necessary  to  keep  it  as  nearly  dry  as  possible  at  all 
times.  This  is  true  in  all  climates,  and  especially  so  in  those  sub- 
ject to  severe  frosts,  as  a  wet  subgrade  which  freezes  expands 
sufficiently  to  break  the  strongest  pavement.  It  cannot  be  too 
strongly  emphasized  that  it  is  useless  to  build  good  pavements 
without  making  careful  provision  for  carrying  off  the  ground 
water  as  rapidly  as  it  accumulates. 


STREETS  AND  PAVEMENTS  125 

To  take  care  of  the  water  that  reaches  the  subgrade,  a  system 
of  drainage  is  needed.  This  should  be  carefully  designed  by  a 
competent  engineer,  in  order  to  be  sure  that  it  will  serve  the 
purpose  for  which  it  is  intended.  There  are  several  types  of 
drainage;  such  as  simple  ditches,  or  an  elaborate  system  of 
side  and  cross  drains,  consisting  of  pipe  laid  in  some  material 
like  broken  stone,  which  readily  conducts  water. 

Underdrains  are  especially  important  where  the  soil  is  of  such 
a  nature  as  to  hold  water,  or  to  prevent  its  draining  off  naturally, 
such  as  clay.  On  a  sand  or  gravel  foundation  the  drain  at  times 
may  be  omitted,  but  only  when  this  is  sanctioned  by  competent 
engineering  advice.  Details  of  the  method  of  subdrainage 
adopted  in  the  Loveland  Farms  Development  are  given  in 
Fig.  18;  effective  subdrainage  is  provided  for  by  constructing 
a  broken  stone  and  tile  drain  under  each  curb,  which  dis- 
charges into  the  storm  inlets  and  to  which  the  sidewalk  sub- 
base  is  connected  at  frequent  intervals. 

On  unsurfaced  streets,  not  completely  improved,  like  lanes  or 
country  roads,  the  surface  and  subgrade  drainage  is  ordinarily 
taken  care  of  by  means  of  deep  ditches  on  each  side  of  the  pave- 
ment. If  "the  street  is  on  a  side  hill,  it  is,  of  course,  necessary  to 
construct  the  ditch  on  the  upper  side  only,  thus  cutting  off  the 
ground  water  which  would  otherwise  seep  under  the  pavement. 
These  ditches  should  be  kept  to  grade  and  should  have  enough 
slope  to  carry  off  the  water  quickly;  otherwise  it  will  pool  and 
saturate  the  road  bed,  making  conditions  worse  than  as  if  no 
ditches  had  been  constructed.  On  the  other  hand,  precaution 
must  also  be  taken  not  to  carry  water  too  great  a  distance  in 
side  ditches  with  steep  grades,  as  there  will  be  serious  danger  of 
undermining  the  roadbed.  In  a  flat  country,  it  is  often  difficult 
to  secure  sufficient  fall  to  provide  a  good  run-off  without  making 
the  ditches  very  deep,  unsightly  and  dangerous.  It  may  then 
be  preferable  to  construct  pipe  drains. 

A  common  method  is  to  construct  blind  side  drains,  connecting 
with  a  tile  pipe  laid  with  open  joints,  leading  to  the  storm  water 
inlet.  These  drains  may  be  about  18  in.  wide  and  24  in.  deep, 
and  filled  with  broken  stone,  slag,  gravel  or  some  other  porous 
material.  The  size  of  pipe  which  is  used  in  these  trenches  is 
ordinarily  4  in.  or  6  in.,  the  former  being  the  more  common. 
The  size  may  be  calculated  in  the  usual  manner,  from  the  amount 
of  water  to  be  carried  and  the  grade  available.     If  water  origi- 


126 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


nates  under  the  street  or  road,  the  drains  may  start  at  the  center 
and  run  to  the  side  in  the  shape  of  a  V,  i.e.,  in  a  herring-bone 
system.  Drains  must  also  be  constructed  along  the  sides  to 
carry  off  the  water. 

Frequently  large  drains  are  constructed  along  the  side  of  the 
pavement,  which  are  the  same  as  the  side  drains  described  above, 
except  that  the  pipe  is  omitted,  and  that  larger  stone  is  used  in 
the  lower  part  of  the  drain.  The  system  is  cheaper  than  the 
tile  drain  system,  but  is  more  likely  to  clog  up  with  silt  and 
become  ineffective. 

Surface  Drainage. — Surface  drainage  is  taken  care  of  by  slop- 
ing the  pavements,  so  that  water  will  run  along  it  longitudinally, 
and  by  crowning  the  pavement,  so  that  water  will  be  carried 
to  the  sides  of  the  roadway.  The  minimum  longitudinal  grade, 
which  is  sanctioned  by  American  practice,  is  0.25  per  cent.; 
less  than  this  will  not  provide  for  removal  of  surface  water  and 
deterioration  of  pavement  will  result.  For  water-bound  maca- 
dam construction,  it  is  advisable  to  make  this  minimum  0.5 
per  cent. 

The  camber  or  crown  which  throws  the  water  to  the  sides  of 
the  roadway  varies  with  the  type  of  pavement,  and  in  water- 
bound  macadam  also  varies  with  the  grade  of  the  street.  The 
maximum  and  minimum  crowns  recommended  by  the  Special 
Committee  on  Materials  for  Road  Construction  and  on 
Standards  for  their  Test  and  Use  of  the  American  Society  of 
Civil  Engineers  are  given  in  the  following  table: 

Table   12. — Maximum  and   Minimum  Crowns  for  Pavements 


Kind  of  roadway 


Recommended  crown — inches  to 
foot  width 


Minimum 


Gravel 

Broken  stone 

Stone  block 

Bituminous  surface.  . 
Bituminous  macadam 
Bituminous  concrete. 

Cement  concrete 

Brick 

Sheet  asphalt 

Wood  block 


y% 
y% 
y 
y 
y 
y 
y 
y 


STREETS  AND  PAVEMENTS 


127 


Catch  Basins  and  Inlets. — Catch  basins  and  drop  inlets  are 
necessary  to  intercept  the  water  carried  by  the  gutters  and 
deliver  it  to  the  storm  water  drains.  The  design  and  construc- 
tion of  these  are  covered  under  Chapter  VII. 


TYPE  AND  MATERIALS  OF  PAVEMENT 

The  object  of  a  pavement  is  to  secure  a  watertight  covering  for 
the  foundation,  and  to  provide  a  smooth  surface  on  which  traffic 
may  move  easily,  safely  and  at  a  low  cost. 

Selection. — The  qualities  of  a  good  pavement  may  be  stated 
as  follows: 

Low  first  cost  and  low  maintenance. 

Durability. 

Sanitary  and  easily  cleaned. 

Smooth  but  not  slippery,  offering  low  resistance  to  traffic. 

In  addition  to  these  qualities,  it  should  be  acceptable  to  those 
residing  or  doing  business  on  the  street.  The  term  "acceptable" 
includes  also  "noiselessness"  of  the  pavement.  This  is  often  a 
very  important  consideration,  especially  along  residential  streets 
and  to  a  less  degree  on  certain  retail  business  streets.  For 
example,  a  stone  block  pavement,  although  it  possesses  many 
desirable  qualities,  would  not  be  desirable  for  a  residential 
street. 

No  pavement  perfectly  meets  all  the  requirements  stated 
above,  and  it  is  necessary  to  carefully  select  the  pavement  which 

Table  13. — Relative  Weights  of  Various  Items  in  the  Ideal  Pavement 


Qualities 


Relative  values  for  resid- 
dential  streets 


Main 


First  cost 

Durability 

Low  cost  of  maintenance 

Ease  of  cleaning 

Sanitary  quality 

Non-slipperiness 

Low  tractive  resistance.  . 
Acceptability 

Total 


23 
21 
13 
12 
10 
5 


100 


128 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


most  nearly  approaches  these  requirements  under  the  conditions 
which  exist.  In  order  to  make  this  comparison,  a  table  for  the 
ideal  pavement  may  be  worked  out,  assigning  a  certain  percentage 
to  each  of  the  qualities  in  proportion  to  the  relative  importance 
of  each.  The  sum  of  these  percentages  will,  for  the  ideal  pave- 
ment, be  100,  and  the  various  types  may  be  compared  to  this 
standard,  and  thus  the  most  suitable  one  selected.  The  preceding 
table  indicates  these  relative  values  for  the  residential  streets 
of  an  industrial  development.  The  values  which  are  assigned 
below  are  not  absolute,  and  should  be  modified  to  suit  conditions. 
As  an  example  of  the  use  of  this  method  in  determining  the 
type  of  pavement  to  be  used,  a  cement  concrete  and  a  bituminous 
concrete  pavement  for  use  on  a  residential  street  will  be  considered 
in  the  table  below: 

Table   14. — Comparative   Values  of  Items  for  a  Cement  Concrete 
and  a    Bituminous  Concrete  Pavement 


Qualities 


Cement 
concrete 


Bituminous 
concrete 


First  cost 

Durability 

Ease  of  maintenance .  . 

Ease  of  cleaning 

Sanitary  qualities 

Non-slipperiness 

Low  tractive  resistance 
Acceptability 

Total 


17 
9 

12 
9 
5 
9 
9 

78 


It  will  be  noted  that  the  above  statement  for  these  pavements 
compared  with  the  ideal  is  good  only  for  the  conditions  assumed 
in  rating  the  various  qualities  of  the  ideal  pavement.  The 
value  obtained  for  these  assumed  conditions  is  very  high,  for 
cement  concrete  and  may  not  be  exceeded  by  any  other  pavement. 
If  the  conditions  were  changed  somewhat,  so  as  to  give  "Accept- 
ability" a  higher  value  and  "First  Cost"  a  lower  value  in  the 
rating  of  the  ideal  pavement,  asphalt  or  bituminous  concrete  on  a 
cement  concrete  base  might  be  about  as  great  as  the  concrete 
pavement.  The  selection  of  the  type  of  pavement  to  be  used 
under  each  set  of  conditions  should  be  made  only  after  a  careful 
engineering  study  of  the   various   items   affecting  it,   but   the 


STREETS  AND  PAVEMENTS  129 

method  outlined  above  indicates  the  manner  in  which  the  final 
selection  should  he  made. 

Local  Materials. — Frequently  the  material  readily  found  in 
the  vicinity  may  be  used  for  street  surfacing,  particularly  for 
those  not  designed  for  heavy  traffic  or  in  the  early  beginning  of 
a  new  development.  Imposed  conditions  on  industrial  War  towns 
made  such  imperative  many  times. 

Earth  Roads.— Where  first  cost  is  of  the  utmost  importance  it 
may  be  necessary  to  utilize  the  existing  soil  as  the  roadway  sur- 
face. The  disadvantages  of  this  are  obvious.  The  street  will 
be  muddy  in  wet  weather  and,  unless  oiled,  dusty  in  dry;  it  ruts 
badly  even  under  favorable  conditions;  it  offers  a  high  resistance 
to  traction;  is  insanitary  and  presents  a  poor  appearance;  and 
the  cost  of  maintenance  necessary  to  keep  the  road  passible  is 
as  great  as  for  a  more  satisfactory  pavement. 

Its  first  cost  is  of  course  low,  as  it  is  only  necessary  to  construct 
drains  and  prepare  and  shape  the  road  as  for  a  foundation,  re- 
moving the  softer  material  and  the  stones.  On  a  gravelly  soil 
fair  results  may  be  obtained  by  this  method,  but  in  clay  it  is 
usually  quite  unsatisfactory. 

Sand-clay  Roads. — When  clay  or  sandy  soils  predominate,  and 
it  is  necessary  to  keep  costs  to  the  lowest  possible  point,  a  sand- 
clay  surface  may  at  times  be  built.  This  type  is  open  to  the 
same  objections  as  the  earth  to  a  lesser  degree.  The  success 
or  failure  of  these  roads  depends  upon  the  mixture  of  sand  and 
clay.  Field  and  laboratory  examinations  should  be  made  to 
determine  the  proper  proportions. 

Sand-clay  roads  should  be  located  so  that  they  will  receive 
several  hours  of  sunlight  during  the  day,  in  order  that  they  may 
dry  quickly.  They  should  be  thoroughly  drained,  and  the  crown 
should  be  sufficient  to  carry  all  water  quickly  to  the  side  of  the 
road.     The  subgrade  should  be  left  flat,  or  nearly  so. 

The  clay  and  sand  are  mixed  by  ploughing;  the  sand  is  spread 
on  the  ploughed  clay  or  vice  versa,  and  the  surface  is  harrowed, 
shaped  and  sometimes  rolled  with  a  light  roller.  The  mixture 
should  be  5  or  6  inches  thick  at  the  sides  and  7  or  8  inches  at  the 
center. 

The  sand-clay  road  is  nut  durable  nor  very  satisfactory  for 
a  town  or  village,  and  can  only  be  considered  as  a  temporary 
expedient.  The  hauling  incidental  to  the  construction  of  the 
utilities  and  houses  is  heavy  enough  to  necessitate  the.  entire 

9 


130  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

rebuilding  of  such  a  road  surface,  and  hence  it  is  not  to  be  recom- 
mended except  under  unusual  conditions. 

Gravel  Roads. — The  gravel  road  is  low  in  cost  and  may.  fre- 
quently be  recommended  for  minor  residential  streets  as  best 
suiting  all  conditions  where  first  cost  is  a  predominating  factor. 
Gravel  is  locally  obtainable  in  many  places;  is  cheap;  and  by 
proper  proportioning  may  be  made  fairly  satisf atory  as  a  surfacing 
material.  Beach,  lake  or  river  gravel  is  not  suitable  for  this  pur- 
pose, due  to  its  smooth  surfaces  and  lack  of  binding  material. 
Unscreened  bank  gravel  is  often  used,  but  this  should  only  be 
done  when  approved  by  a  competent  highway  engineer. 

In  constructing  a  gravel  street  surface  the  subgrade  should  be 
prepared,  as  for  other  types,  by  removing  all  soft  or  vegetable 
material,  and  by  thorough  rolling.  Close  attention  should  be 
paid  to  the  drainage  of  the  subsoil  and  to  the  removal  of  surface 
water.  The  gravel  is  then  spread  on  the  street,  care  being  taken 
to  spread  it  evenly.  Stone  larger  than  1^  in.  should  not  be  used. 
A  crown  of  %  in.  per  foot  is  ordinarily  used,  though  this  is 
sometimes  decreased  somewhat.  The  material  is  then  wetted 
and  rolled  until  thoroughly  compacted. 

This  type  of  pavement  is  not  suitable  for  any  considerable 
amount  of  motor  traffic.  When  this  does  not  occur  it  can  be 
maintained  quite  cheaply,  but  this  requirement  rules  it  out  for 
all  except  the  less  important  residential  streets. 

Miscellaneous  Materials. — In  various  sections  of  the  country 
other  natural  materials  have  been  used  to  considerable  extent 
and  with  more  or  less  success.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned 
chert,  beach  shells  and  shale.  These  as  a  rule  have  been  em- 
ployed more  extensively  on  country  roads  than  on  town  or  city 
streets,  and  are  in  fact  better  adapted  to  such  use. 

Prepared  Material. — Water-bound  Macadam. — Water-bound 
macadam  is  similar  to  gravel  surfacing,  but  constructed  with 
crushed  stone  of  suitable  sizes  in  place  of  gravel.  It  is  not  a 
durable  type  where  subjected  to  a  considerable  amount  of  motor 
traffic,  as  the  fast  moving  wheels  suck  the  fine  binding  material 
from  between  the  stones  and  cause  the  pavement  to  ravel  and 
disintegrate.  It  may  be  used  for  minor  residential  streets, 
where  such  traffic  is  light,  but  under  any  other  conditions  the 
cost  of  maintenance  is  excessive,  and  the  annual  cost  per  square 
yard  is  much  higher  than  for  more  durable  types  of  pavement. 

In  laying  water-bound  macadam  the  interstices  are  filled  with 


STREETS  AND  PAVEMENTS  131 

small  particles  and  with  stone  dust,  sprinkled  and  rolled  until 
firm  and  hard.  It  is  ordinarily  constructed  in  two  layers.  The 
lower  layer  is  of  larger  stone,  and  of  a  thickness  of  from  4  to  8 
in.  depending  upon  the  subsoil  and  the  amount  and  character 
of  the  traffic.  The  upper  course  is  usually  about  3  in.  thick. 
The. size  of  the  crushed  stone  may  range  from  l}i  to  3  in.,  ac- 
cording to  the  quality  and  character  of  the  stone,  and  the  type 
and  amount  of  traffic.  In  the  selection  of  the  broken  stone  or 
slag  for  the  upper  course,  toughness,  resistance  to  abrasion, 
shape,  cementing  quality,  and  cleanliness  should  be  considered. 
Laboratory  tests  to  determine  these  qualities  should  be  made  on 
a  stone  whose  characteristics  are  not  known. 

A  crown  of  %  or  %  in.  per  foot  is  used.  On  steep  grades  the 
greater  crown  is  recommended,  in  order  that  water  may  be  car- 
ried to  the  gutters  quickly  and  not  run  down  the  street  on  the 
macadam  surface,  causing  the  binding  material  to  wash  out  and 
the  surface  to  disintegrate.  Although  sometimes  used,  it  is 
not  desirable  that  this  type  be  employed  on  grades  greater  than 
5  per  cent.,  because  of  this  tendency. 

A  surface  treatment  of  light  refined  tar  or  asphaltic  oil  is  of 
value  in  tending  to  prevent  the  pavement  from  ravelling.  The 
oil  should  be  applied  by  a  pressure  sprinkler,  and  then  covered 
with  sharp  coarse  sand. 

Macadam  with  Tar  or  Asphaltic  Surface.— This  type  of  surface 
on  water-bound  macadam  makes  it  better  able  to  withstand  the 
effects  of  rapid  motor  vehicles.  It  is  rather  slippery,  and  should 
not  be  used  on  grades  above  4  per  cent  It  also  tends  to  creep, 
forming  ridges  across  the  roadway,  unless  very  carefully  con- 
structed under  competent  control. 

In  order  to  apply  a  surface  of  this  kind,  the  roadway  must  be 
swept  clean,  in  order  to  remove  all  the  surface  dirt  and  the  stone 
dust  filler,  to  a  depth  of  K  to  lA  inch  below  the  top  of  the  large 
stone  fragments.  On  this  cleaned  surface,  a  heavy  refined  tar 
or  an  asphaltic  residuum  is  spread  hot,  and  the  roadway  is  then 
covered  with  a  layer  of  stone  screenings,  and  thoroughly  rolled. 

Bituminous  Macadam.— Thin  type  has  a  wearing  course  of 
macadam  with  the  interstices  of  the  stone  filled  with  a  bitumin- 
ous binder.  It  is  usually  constructed  on  a  broken  stone  base, 
prepared  in  the  same  manner  as  the  lower  course  of  water-bound 
macadam.  Pavements  of  this  class  have  also  been  constructed 
having  both  courses  bound  with  a  bituminous  filler.     The  qualit  les 


132  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

of  the  stone  for  the  wearing  course  should  be  considered  as  for 
water-bound  macadam,  except  for  cementing  power.  The  stone 
should  also  have  a  rough  surface,  so  that  the  bituminous  material 
will  adhere  to  it.  The  larger  stone  fragments  should  be  1  to  2^ 
inches  in  size,  depending  on  the  depth  of  the  course.  This  is 
spread  and  rolled.  Then  a  heavy  grade  of  refined  tar,  bitumin- 
ous residuum,  or  fluxed  asphalt  is  poured  hot  into  the  voids,  so 
that  each  stone  is  cqvered  with  a  thin  layer  of  bituminous  ma- 
terial. Care  should  be  taken  that  an  excessive  amount  is  not 
used,  as  this  causes  the  surface  to  creep,  forming  waves  which 
are  extremely  unpleasant  to  ride  over. 

A  lajrer  of  ^  inch  stone  or  dustless  screenings,  is  spread  over 
the  surface,  and  broomed  and  rolled  until  the  voids  are  filled. 
A  thick  coat  of  bituminous  material  is  then  usually  applied,  and 
a  thin  layer  of  sand  or  fine  screenings  is  then  scattered  on  this. 
The  depth  of  the  top  course  is  usually  2}^  to  3  inches.  The 
crown  should  be  from  }>■£  in.  to  \^  in.  per  ft. 

Bituminous  macadam  does  not  wash,  is  comparatively  dustless, 
and  is  fairly  easy  to  maintain.  It  makes  a  very  comfortable 
riding  road  for  fast  vehicles,  and  if  a  flush  coat  is  not  used  it  is 
not  slippery.  It  is  not  durable  enough  for  heavy  traffic,  but 
stands  up  well  under  moderate  loads. 

Bituminous  Concrete. — This  type  of  pavement  is  composed  of 
a  mixture  of  broken  stone,  trap  rock,  gravel,  gneiss,  or  slag  ag- 
gregate and  a  bituminous  cement,  laid  as  a  wearing  course  over 
a  base  of  water  bound  or  bituminous  macadam  or  cement  con- 
crete. The  mixture  is  prepared  in  specially  designed  equipment 
and  mixed  after  heating  the  bitumen  to  the  proper  temperature, 
and  preferably  after  heating  the  aggregate. 

There  are  three  distinct  classes  of  bituminous  concrete  pave- 
ments in  use  today,  which  may  be  briefly  described  as  follows: 

First. — A  bitiminous  concrete  pavement,  having  a  mineral  aggregate 
varying  in  size  from  about  Y±  in.  to  \l/i  in.,  or  as  the  material  is  re- 
ceived from  the  crushing  plant  after  screening  out  larger  sizes. 

Second. — A  bituminous  concrete  pavement  having  a  mineral  aggre- 
gate similar  to  the  first  class  but  with  the  addition  of  sand,  stone  screen- 
ings or  similar  material. 

Third. — A  bituminous  concrete  pavement  having  a  definite  mechani- 
cally graded  aggregate  of  broken  stone,  slag,  etc.,  with  or  without  sand 
or  other  fine  inert  material.  The  sizes  of  mineral  aggregate  in  this 
class  vary  by  definite  percentage  from  dust  to  about  1  in. 


STREETS  AND  PAVEMENTS  133 

The  first  class  represents  perhaps  the  most  common  form  of 
this  type  of  pavement  in  use  and  requires  somewhat  less  skill  in 
preparation  to  get  satisfactory  results  than  do  either  of  the  other 
two.  The  second  class  is  harder  to  control  in  securing  uniform 
results  and  therefore  is  not  so  extensively  used.  The  third  class 
has  found  extensive  and  satisfactory  use  and  includes  several 
kinds  of  patented  pavements.  The  scientific  grading  of 
mineral  aggregate  as  called  for  in  this  class,  produces  a  pavement 
of  greater  density  and  more  uniform  quality  than  the  other  two. 

To  secure  the  best  results,  the  bituminous  materials  must  be 
carefully  selected  in  the  light  of  past  experience,  and  used  under 
laboratory  control,  the  material  used  generally  being  asphalt 
cements  or  refined  tars.  This  phase  of  the  subject  is  highly 
technical,  and  will  not  now  be  expanded.  The  materials  for 
bituminous  concrete  paving  may  be  mixed  by  hand,  but  it  is 
better  to  use  machine  heating  and  mixing  methods,  as  a  more 
uniform  product  is  obtained.  It  is  impracticable  to  lay  this 
surfacing  in  wet  or  cold  weather. 

After  the  material  is  placed  on  the  road  it  is  rolled,  while  still 
warm  and  pliable,  to  the  desired  thickness,  usually  2  or  2}^ 
inches.  Rolling  should  begin  at  the  edges  and  continue  toward 
the  center,  and  should  be  done  with  a  10-ton  tandem  roller. 
When  the  roller  makes  no  ridges  on  the  concrete,  a  seal  coat  of 
bituminous  cement  is  usually  applied  to  the  surface,  in  quanti- 
ties of  }-2  to  1  gallon  per  square  yard,  and  the  surface  is  then 
covered  with  stone  chips  and  again  rolled. 

Bituminous  concrete  on  a  cement  concrete  base  makes  an 
excellent  pavement.  It  is  smooth,  attractive  in  appearance, 
and  when  properly  built  is  fairly  easy  to  maintain.  It  is  not 
so  slipppery  as  sheet  asphalt,  which  it  resembles  in  many  of  its 
characteristics.  It  is  comparatively  high  in  first  cost,  which 
often  prevents  its  use  in  industrial  developments,  and  is  not  suit- 
able for  extremely  heavy  traffic,  but  under  the  usual  traffic  of  resi- 
dential streets  stands  up  well. 

It  is  often  constructed  on  a  base  of  macadam  or  bituminous 
concrete  differently  proportioned,  but  the  results  are  not  quite 
as  satisfactory,  and  the  annual  maintenance  cost  per  square  yard 
is  greater,  as  the  foundation  must  be  renewed  from  time  to  time. 

Cement  Concrete. — Cement  concrete  pavements  have  been 
rapidly  coming  into  favor  in  the  last  few  years,  and  at  the  pres- 
ent time  large  quantities  of  this  type  are  being  constructed. 


134  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

From  past  records,  it  has  been  evident  that  cheap  pavements  are 
much  too  expensive  to  maintain  on  streets  carrying  any  consider- 
able amount  of  traffic,  and  the  concrete  pavement,  probably 
more  nearly  than  any  other,  represents  the  mean  between  maca- 
dam surfacing  with  high  maintenance  costs,  and  the  expensive 
block  pavements,  and  sheet  surfacing  over  heavy  foundations. 

Concrete  pavements  may  be  made  in  either  one  or  two  courses, 
but  the  present  tendency  is  to  use  the  former.  In  two  course 
work,  the  bottom  course  usually  has  an  aggregate  of  a  larger  size 
and  is  sometimes  of  a  leaner  mixture.  In  this  method  of  con- 
struction there  is  some  danger  of  the  upper  course  separating 
from  the  lower,  with  consequent  disintegration.  Concrete  pave- 
ments of  the  one  course  type  are  usually  built  from  5  to  8  inches 
thick,  common  practice  being  to  make  them  6  in.  thick  at  the 
outside  and  8  in.  thick  at  the  center  of  the  road. 

Concrete  is  usually  mixed  in  the  proportion  of  one  part  Port- 
land cement  to  two  parts  sand  and  three  parts  crushed  stone  or 
gravel.  It  should  be  emphasized  that  in  the  construction  of 
cement  concrete  pavements  the  selection  of  only  the  best  of 
aggregates  is  of  prime  importance.  In  order  to  wear  uniformly 
the  mixture  must  be  as  dense  and  strong  as  possible  and  this 
means  that  only  good  clean  material,  showing  high  abrasion  test 
and  graded  in  sizes,  must  be  secured.  Crushed  trap-rock,  granite 
or  hard  limestone  are  better  than  gravel  for  this  purpose.  The 
cement  should  be  subjected  to  laboratory  tests  to  insure  best 
quality. 

After  grading  and  compacting  the  subgrade,  it  is  placed 
on  the  road,  where  it  is  spread  to  the  required  depth  and 
lightly  tamped  at  the  same  time.  After  the  concrete  has  started 
to  set,  it  is  finished  either  by  hand,  by  the  use  of  a  roller  and  belt, 
or  by  a  tamping  and  finishing  machine.  The  use  of  a  finishing 
machine  is  desirable,  but  excellent  pavements  may  be  constructed 
by  the  roller  and  belt  method.  Hand  finishing  by  floats  is  not 
quite  so  satisfactory,  as  slight  depressions  in  the  pavements  are 
unavoidable  when  this  method  of  construction  is  used. 

In  city  and  town  work  the  curb  is  often  poured  integral  with 
the  pavement  itself.  This  is  considerably  cheaper  than  using 
a  stone  curb,  as  well  as  presenting  a  better  appearance.  The 
crown  of  a  concrete  pavement  should  preferably  not  exceed  3^ 
in.  to  the  foot,  and  may  be  as  little  as  3^6  m«  to  the  ft. 

Vertical  joints  to  take  care  of  temperature  changes  are  ordi- 


STREETS  AND  PAVEMENTS 


135 


narily  placed  from  30  to  50  ft.  apart,  depending  on  climatic 
conditions.  These  joints  should  be  about  ^  in.  wide  and  filled 
with  a  bituminous  compound.     There  seems,   however,   to  be 


4*wp.*  ^IjffiJ*""2 


some  tendency,  away  from  using  such  joints,  except  where  it  is 
necessary  to  stop  the  work  for  a  time,  and  at  the  end  of  a  day's 


run. 


Concrete  pavements  are  constructed  both  with  and  wkhout 


136 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


steel  reinforcement.  In  climates  having  considerable  range  of 
temperature,  or  where  the  subgrade  conditions  are  not  the  best, 
it  is  commonly  used.  The  weight  and  amount  of  the  reinforce- 
ment is  a  matter  for  careful  engineering  study.  This  is  usually 
in  the  form  of  woven  wire  or  expanded  metal  and  is  placed 
near  the  center  of  the  slab. 

Details  and  typical  cross-sections  of  plain  and  reinforced 
concrete  pavement,  constructed  in  the  Loveland  Farms  Devel- 
opment, are  shown  in  Fig.  18.  A  somewhat  different  design  of 
cross-section  and  curb,  is  shown  in  Fig.  19,  giving  the  details 


7-0- *      . 


^..'stinc 
CATCH  BASIHS    Cinders 


„H--    »  -,J        SECTION  AT      txiitina'     r 
;«TW-3Tile      r  ATru  racunc    "JL"?'^-~?Jti/eDram 


lf'-0^4'-Ol^---7'-0''---^'-0$-----Wl-o"----^-^rr-IOL 

k— s'-o-—- >|   __2'  ' 

tfV./?5amf«ry--.J) 
Sewer  ™ 


5L0"or, 


Typical  section  between"™"7       ,"  p™  --9-0-— m 

STREET  INTERSECTIONS     f'Oastiain    St  6"t 
5J3  FT.STREET-Looking  North 

60'-0"- 


6  Water  Mam 


.l2'-o'l-—->\2'-V*r -IOL0--->f-  -y-IQ'-O  '--■  ->j?-^<-  -, 12  '-0  - 


?f-4'-0"  *< 


X^TT/leWa/'n- 


-,4'-6"- 


foisting 
Cinders 


j-'Tik-m'-  k *: 

'H/affr Matin 

MKtmsas'irSfs.'    60  FT.STREET-Look.ng  North  or  West  *""^         )8%z?'>jtt,rmPra;n 

7*|  *"**"*■ 

■>t^^*l  .-Stone  Slab  Sidewalk 


i 

(K  'J  'Gas  flam  TYPICAL  SECTION  BETWEEtf      ,„     „    />0  .        LJ 

k—  -$'<?-— ->F^V/'5ff/7/f«ryJ^er    STREET  INTERSECTIONS  6 M»*"~";in     r\<~—3'-o''-—4 


.12  or 
24" 


u 14-0- 

^    Y-4'-0^-  —  S'-t?"-—^—  ■?'<??- 

3'TilePramJl  cFrTION  AT  fir/i: 


SECTION  AT 
SIDEWALK  CROSSING 


'~3"TilePrain 


Fig.  19. — Details   of   street   improvement   and   sub-structure   location;   Lorain 
Project  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation. 

of  the  pavements  laid  in  the  Lorain  Project  of  the  Emergency 
Fleet  Corporation.  In  this  latter  case  provision  is  made  for 
later  widening  of  the  pavement  and  for  future  surfacing  with 
sheet  asphalt. 

Concrete  pavements  are  durable  under  heavy  traffic  and  give 
a  smooth,  even  surface  which  offers  small  resistance  to  traffic. 
The  first  cost  is  not  high  and  the  cost  of  maintenance  is  low  if  well 
designed  and  constructed.  Concrete  is  easy  to  clean  and  is 
practically  dustless.  A  disadvantage  of  concrete  is  that  it 
cannot  readily  be  cut  to  obtain  access  to  subsurface  structures. 


STREETS  AND  PAVEMENTS 


137 


Sheet  Asphalt. — Sheet  asphalt  pavements  have  a  wearing 
surface  of  asphalt  cement  combined  with  an  inert  aggregate  of 
graded  sand  and  filler,  laid  upon  a  foundation  which  is 
usually  cement  concrete,  although  bituminous  concrete,  old 
macadam,  brick  or  stone  block  are  sometimes  used.  The 
thickness  of  this  wearing  surface  is  usually  from  1%  in.  to  2}^  in. 
depending  upon  amount  of  traffic  to  be  carried. 

The  pavement  is  ordinarily  built  in  two  courses.  The  first 
course,  called  the  binder  course,  is  of  asphalt  and  graded  crushed 
stone,  and  varies  in  thickness  from  1  in.  to  l}^  in.  The  aggre- 
gate is  heated  and  then  mixed  in  a  rotary  mixer,  with  a  minimum 


Fig.  20. — A  suggested  design  for  the  intersection  of  a  service  road,  or  alley, 
with  a  street;  the  enlargement  of  the  alley  pavement  at  the  intersection,  and  the 
flush  sidewalk  crossing  are  desirable  features. 

quantity,  about  6  per  cent.,  of  refined  asphalt.  It  is  then  spread 
on  the  foundation  with  shovels  or  rakes  and  rolled  with  a  5  to  7 
ton  roller.  Sometimes  the  binder  course  is  replaced  by  a  paint 
coat,  consisting  of  asphalt  dissolved  in  naphtha,  which  is  applied 
to  the  concrete  foundation.  The  wearing  course  is  placed 
directly  on  the  binder  or  paint  coat. 

The  aggregate  of  the  wearing  course  consists  of  carefully 
graded  particles  of  sand,  ranging  from  the  size  of  dust  grains  to 
about  %  in.  in  size.  The  sand  constitutes  nearly  80  per  cent, 
of  the  surface  mixture,  and  takes  nearly  all  of  the  wear  of  the 
traffic.  It  should  therefore  be  hard,  clean,  moderately  sharp,  and 
have  a  suitable  surface  for  the  asphalt  to  adhere  to.     It  should  be 


138  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

free  from  organic  matter,  and  should  pack  together  well  when 
dry. 

With  the  sand  there  should  be  used  a  filler  of  very  fine  material, 
such  as  powdered  limestone  or  Portland  cement.  This  should 
be  fine  enough  to  pass  a  200  mesh  screen,  in  order  to  properly  fill 
the  voids  in  the  sand.  After  mixing  the  sand  and  filler,  the 
material  should  be  heated  to  about  350°F.  and  then  mixed  with 
asphalt  cement  heated  to  about  300°F.  It  is  then  carefully 
spread  on  the  binder  course  with  hot  rakes,  taking  care  to  loosen 
the  material  and  to  keep  it  uniform  in  character.  It  is  then 
rolled,  sprinkled  with  stone  dust  or  Portland  cement,  and  re-rolled. 

Asphalt  is  smooth,  dustless,  almost  noiseless,  and  is  easily 
cleaned.  It  offers  little  resistance  to  traffic,  is  easily  repaired, 
and  is  well  adapted  to  residence  streets  and  to  business  streets 
not  carrying  any  considerable  amount  of  heavy  slow  moving 
traffic.  It  is  not  suitable  for  streets  which  do  not  have  a  fairly 
uniform  volume  of  travel,  as  it  develops  cracks  if  not  ironed  out 
by  traffic.  Concrete  or  brick  gutters  should  always  be  used  with 
sheet  asphalt  pavements,  as  asphalt  subjected  to  continual  mois- 
ture has  a  tendency  to  disintegrate. 

It  is  not  suitable  for  heavy  grades  on  account  of  its  smoothness. 
It  is  desirable  to  limit  its  use  to  grades  of  5  per  cent,  or  less, 
and  on  heavy  traffic  streets  4  per  cent,  is  a  desirable  maximum. 
Sheet  asphalt  has  not  sufficient  strength  or  stability  to  bridge 
over  soft  spots,  hence  the  foundation  must  be  rigid.  Around  car 
tracks  it  must  be  protected,  or  the  constant  jarring  will  cause 
it  to  break  up.  The  cost  of  sheet  asphalt  pavements  is  about 
the  same  as  bituminous  concrete  and  not  as  high  as  block 
pavements. 

Brick  PaucmojJLs- — Modern  brick  pavements  are  usually  built 
on  a  foundation  of  Portland  cement  concrete.  They  are  oc- 
casionally laid  directly  on  the  subgrade,  or  on  a  foundation  of 
broken  stone  or  slag  macadam,  but  ordinarily  this  is  not  to  be 
recommended,  as  serious  settlement  is  almost  sure  to  take  place 
and  maintenance  is  excessively  high. 

There  are  three  types  of  brick  pavement  laid  on  a  concrete 
base,  namely,  the  sand  cushion,  semi-monolithic  and  monolithic 
types.  These  differ  only  in  the  method  of  joining  the  brick  sur- 
facing to  the  concrete  base. 

The  sand  cushion  brick  pavement  is  constructed  by  spreading 
a  layer  of  clean,  coarse  sand,  about  1  in.  thick,  upon  the  concrete 


STREETS  AND  PAVEMENTS  139 

base,  and  laying  the  brick  directly  on  this  sand  cushion,  on  edge 
and  at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  street.  After  each  course 
is  laid,  the  bricks  are  driven  together  before  the  next  course  is 
started.  The  joints  in  the  brick  may  be  filled,  either  with 
Portland  cement  grout  or  with  a  bituminous  filler.  On  hillside 
work,  the  bituminous  filler  is  preferred,  as  it  offers  a  better  foot- 
hold for  horses.  Where  grades  are  low,  the  Portland  cement 
grout  is  ordinarily  to  be  preferred. 

If  a  bituminous  filler  is  used,  the  material,  usually  either  refined 
asphalt  or  tar,  is  heated  to  the  required  temperature  and  poured 
into  the  joints  by  means  of  a  special  pouring  can.  This  is  best 
done  on  a  warm  day,  and  the  brick  must  be  perfectly  dry,  so  as  to 
allow  the  bitumen  to  adhere  to  them. 

The  cement  grout  filler  should  be  very  carefully  mixed  in  the 
proportion  of  one  part  cement  to  one  part  clean  sand,  and  should 
be  kept  continually  in  agitation  until  swept  on  the  pavement.  Suf- 
ficient water  should  be  used  to  make  the  grout  the  consistency  of 
pea  soup.  To  avoid  thickening  of  the  grout,  the  surface  ahead 
of  the  sweeper  should  be  well  sprinkled.  The  material  is  then 
poured  on  the  pavement  and  thoroughly  swept  into  the  joints 
with  stiff  brooms.  Care  should  be  taken  that  it  is  not  swept  too 
far,  as  segregation  of  the  sand  and  cement  will  then  take  place. 
After  initial  set  of  the  grout  has  taken  place,  a  layer  of  sand  about 
y2  in.  deep  should  be  spread  on  the  surface  which  should  be 
sprinkled  frequently  for  about  ten  days. 

In  the  semi-monolithic  type  of  construction,  the  sand  cushion 
is  replaced  by  a  dry  mixture  of  one  part  cement  to  three  or  four 
parts  sand.  This  is  apread  over  the  surface  of  the  concrete 
base  to  a  depth  of  Y2  in.  and  the  brick  laid,  lightly  sprinkled, 
rolled  and  grouted  as  before. 

The  monolithic  type  of  brick  pavement  is  built  by  placing  the 
brick  directly  on  the  concrete  foundation  before  the  concrete 
has  had  time  to  set.  It  is  then  rolled  and  grouted  as  soon  as 
possible.  Where  the  brick  are  grouted  in  place  expansion  joints 
of  bituminous  material  extending  through  the  base  are  placed 
against  each  curb,  in  order  to  take  care  of  expansion  and 
contraction  due  to  temperature  changes.  They  are  also  some- 
times provided  across  the  pavement  at  intervals  of  30  to  50  feet, 
but  the  tendency  is  toward  eliminating  these. 

The  monolithic  and  semi-monolithic  types  are  tending  to 
displace  the  sand  cushion  method  of  construction,  which  has  not 


140  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

stood  up  as  well  under  traffic.  The  sand  alone  is  not  sufficiently- 
stable  to  remain  in  the  same  position.  The  cement  mixed  with 
the  sand  in  the  semi-monolithic  type  overcomes  this  tendency, 
and  a  very  satisfactory  and  durable  pavement  is  obtained  in  this 
way.  The  monolithic  type  of  construction  is  frequently  used 
for  country  roads  and  even  for  streets  in  a  town  or  city,  and  has 
given  entire  satisfaction.  A  monolithic  brick  pavement  does  not 
require  as  thick  a  foundation  of  concerto  as  the  other  two  types, 
as  the  brick  themselves  add  materially  to  the  beam  strength  of 
the  structure. 

The  paving  brick  now  in  general  use  are  vitrified  shale  brick, 
vitrified  fire-clay  brick  and  slag,  or  scoria  blocks.  Of  these  the 
shale  brick  is  most  extensively  used.  They  are  made  of  the 
proper  mixture  of  shale  and  clay,  ground  and  mixed  carefully. 
Water  is  added  to  bring  the  mixture  to  the  desired  consistency, 
when  it  is  pressed  through  dies  and  cut  to  form  the  blocks.  These 
blocks  are  heated  in  kilns,  almost  to  the  point  of  vitrification  and 
then  gradually  cooled.  The  size  of  shale  brick  is  usually  S}^  X 
4  X  83^  in.  Slag  or  scoria  blocks  are  made  from  iron  furnace 
slag,  and,  while  being  used  in  England,  only  a  limited  use  has 
been  made  of  these  in  this  country.  Hillside  brick  having  one 
edge  beveled  are  used  on  steep  grades. 

The  use  of  brick  pavement  has  increased  considerably  in  the 
last  decade,  and  it  is  now  extensively  used  on  city  streets  and 
country  roads.  The  first  cost  is  relatively  high,  but  the  cost  of 
maintenance  is  low.  It  offers  a  low  resistance  to  traffic,  is  sani- 
tary and  easily  cleaned.  It  presents  a  smooth  surface,  is  dustless 
and  gives  an  attractive  appearance.  Brick  pavement  is  rather 
hard  on  horses,  however,  and  is  noisy,  in  this  respect  being  second 
only  to  stone  block.  In  industrial  communities,  its  high  initial 
cost  will  tend  to  prevent  its  use  except  on  hillsides  or  on  heavily 
traveled  streets. 

Stone  and  Wood  Block. — Stone  and  wood  block  pavements  are 
used  in  cities  where  the  traffic  is  extremely  heavy.  But  in  in- 
dustrial towns  there  will  seldom  be  any  need  for  them,  except 
possibly  near  the  manufacturing  plant  itself.  Block  pave- 
ments should  be  laid  on  a  concrete  base. 

The  wood  blocks  in  most  common  use  are  of  long  leaf  yellow 
pine,  impregnated  with  from  16  to  20  pounds  of  coal  tar  paving 
oil  or  coal  tar  distillate  oil  per  cubic  foot  of  block.  The  blocks 
may  be  either  3  or  4  in.  in  depth  and  are  laid  with  tie  grain 


STREETS  AND  PA  VEMENTS  141 

vertical.  The  blocks  may  be  laid  on  a  cement  sand  cushion,  as 
in  the  semi-monolithic  brick  pavement  with  a  sand  cushion,  or 
the  concrete  base  may  be  painted  with  tar  or  asphalt  and  the 
blocks  laid  directly  on  it.  The  blocks  may  be  grouted  in  place 
with  a  Portland  cement  grout  or  bonded  with  pitch  or  tar  thor- 
oughly mopped  into  the  joints. 

Wood  block  properly  laid  gives  a  smooth  and  durable  surface. 
This  type  of  surfacing  is  expensive,  and  if  not  kept  perfectly  clean 
is  extremely  slippery  when  wet.  Trouble  is  sometimes  ex- 
perienced during  the  first  year  or  two  with  the  blocks  "bleeding" 
in  warm  weather,  covering  the  pavement  with  a  sticky  coat  of 
tarry  material. 

Stone  blocks  may  be  laid  either  on  a  sand  or  dry  mortar 
cushion,  or  directly  on  the  green  concrete,  as  described  under 
Brick  Pavements.  The  method  of  construction  is  similar  to 
that  heretofore  described.  Stone  for  good  paving  block  should 
be  of  even  texture,  hard,  durable  and  tough.  It  should  break 
smoothly,  so  that  good  joints  may  be  obtained,  and  should  wear 
evenly,  so  that  the  road  may  retain  a  good  surface.  It  should  not 
wear  slippery,  nor  break  off  at  the  corners.  The  best  stone 
for  the  purpose  are  granite  and  sandstone.  Limestone  has  been 
sometimes  used,  and  certain  grades  are  satisfactory,  but  fre- 
quently it  is  too  soft  and  tends  to  cobble. 

The  grouted  block  stone  pavement  is  the  type  recommended 
for  most  requirements,  except  on  heavy  grades;  in  this  type 
the  joints  are  filled  and  the  surface  covered,  with  Portland 
cement  grout,  giving  a  smooth,  and,  if  properly  proportioned 
and  applied,  a  good  wearing  surface. 

Stone  block  pavements  are  expensive  and  comparatively 
noisy.  They  are  not  as  smooth  as  most  modern  types  of  pave- 
ment, and  do  not  present  an  attractive  appearance.  They  are, 
however,  durable  and  should  be  used  on  streets  which  are  re- 
quired to  carry  a  large  amount  of  very  heavy  hauling  and  may 
be  used  on  steep  grades. 

Miscellaneous  Types. — In  addition  to  the  types  of  pavement 
which  have  been  described  are  others  which  are  in  more  or  less 
use  in  various  localities.  Among  these  may  be  mentioned  rock 
asphalt,  asphalt  blocks,  cobblestone,  burnt  clay  and  straw. 
The  latter  two  are  of  very  minor  importance  and  are  still  in  use 
only  in  scattered  sections. 

Rock  asphalt  pavements  differ  from  sheet  asphalt  pavements 


142  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

in  that  the  mineral  aggregate  has  been  impregnated  by  nature 
with  a  bituminous  cementing  material,  the  mineral  aggregate 
consisting  of  sand  or  limestone.  This  pavement  has  found  only 
a  limited  use  in  this  country  and  cannot  compete  in  cost  with 
sheet  asphalt  if  laid  on  a  concrete  foundation.  The  natural 
material,  in  the  form  of  soft  rock  is  run  through  a  crusher  in  order 
to  pulverize  it  and  is  then  shipped  in  open  cars  to  the  point  of  use. 
In  the  earlier  pavements  of  this  type  constructed  in  America 
the  principal  objection  found  was  that  the  percentage  of  bitumen 
was  not  uniform,  and  soft  and  hard  crumbly  spots  would  soon 
appear  in  the  surface  of  the  pavement,  and  its  use  was  practically 
discontinued  in  most  sections.  Recently,  in  the  south  eastern 
states,  this  material  has  again  been  put  on  the  market.  It  is 
claimed  that  the  trouble  formerly  experienced  in  bitumen  content 
is  being  corrected  and  the  percentage  made  constant  by  analsyis 
and  tests,  and  by  re-mixing  and  proportioning  the  pulverized 
material.  One  of  the  most  important  advantages  claimed  for 
this  material  is  that  it  does  not  have  to  be  heated  before  laying, 
as  do  all  other  bituminous  pavements,  and  therefore  can  be  laid 
in  isolated  communities  where  an  expensive  heating  plant  is 
not  available. 

Asphalt  blocks  consist  of  blocks  made  by  compressing  under 
heavy  stress  a  mixture  of  asphaltic  cement  and  fine  mineral 
aggregate.  The  mixture  is  practically  the  same  as  that  used  for 
bituminous  concrete  pavements.  The  blocks  usually  are  about 
5  in.  by  12  in.  in  surface  dimension  and  2  to  3  in.  in  depth,  and 
are  laid  on  a  macadam  or  cement  concrete  foundation  and  a 
fresh  mortar  bed  }<2  m-  thick.  The  surface  is  then  swept  with 
fine  sand  to  thoroughly  fill  the  joints.  This  type  of  pavement 
has  about  the  same  appearance  and  service  characteristics  as 
a  bituminous  concrete  pavement,  and  is  easy  to  lay,  but  has  not 
been  found  satisfactory  on  account  of  its  poor  wearing  quality 
and  difficulty  of  making  repairs. 

Cobblestone  pavements  are  in  use  in  many  places,  although 
few  new  pavements  of  this  type  are  being  built.  They  are  con- 
structed of  selected  natural  hard  sandstone  of  4  to  8  in.  diameter 
and  laid  on  a  prepared  subgrade  and  cushion  of  sand.  Care  is 
necessary  to  wedge  the  stones  together  by  use  of  smaller  stones 
and  a  sand  or  gravel  filler. 

The  actual  construction  of  this  type  of  pavement  is  similar 
to  sheet  asphalt  except  that  the  rolling  of  the  surface  must  be 


STREETS  AND  PA  VEMENTS  143 

continued  for  a  short  period  each  day  for  several  days.  While 
in  some  cases  the  pavement  is  laid  on  a  loose  stone  base,  this 
practice  is  to  be  condemned  and  it  is  recommended  that  a  cement 
concrete  base  be  used  wherever  rock  asphalt  is  considered  for  a 
wearing  surface.  The  final  appearance  of  a  rock  asphalt  pave- 
ment is  very  similar  to  sheet  asphalt  and  laid  under  similar  con- 
ditions and  uniformity  of  bitumen,  should  give  service  equally 
as  good. 

ACCESSORY  STRUCTURES 

Sidewalks. — The  same  qualities  which  are  required  in  a  good 
pavement  are  also  necessary  for  a  good  sidewalk.  It  should  be 
smooth,  but  not  slippery,  afford,  a  good  foothold  at  all  times, 
be  durable,  non-absorptive,  clean,  wear  uniformly  and  be  low  in 
first  cost  and  in  maintenance. 

Widths- and  Slopes.— The  width  of  the  sidewalk  should  be  de- 
termined in  the  same  way  as  the  width  of  a  street  and  should  not 
be  considered  merely  as  a  function  of  the  street  width,  as  is 
quite  commonly  done.  For  example,  in  wholesale  districts  little 
sidewalk  space  is  ordinarily  required,  although  the  streets  need 
to  be  very  wide.  On  residential  streets,  the  walk  is  usually 
kept  1  or  2  ft.  from  the  property  line,  and  a  width  not  greater 
than  5  ft.  is  ordinarily  sufficient.  On  minor  residential  streets, 
4  feet  is  often  quite  enough.  Usually,  the  whole  space  between 
the  curb  and  the  property  line  in  residential  districts  is  not 
paved,  part  of  it  being  reserved  for  a  planting  strips. 

In  order  to  shed  ^ater  quickly,  walks  should  be  given  a  slope 
of  K  to  XA  in.  per  foot  towards  the  roadway.  It  is  very  undesira- 
able  to  slope  the  sidewalk  toward  the  abutting  property.  Slopes 
above  }£  in.  are  likely  to  be  slippery  and  should  not  be  used  ordi- 
narily; but  slopes  as  great  as  %  in.  per  foot  may  be  used  for 
gravel  and  broken  stone.  A  slope  of  >^  in.  to  the  foot  is  recom- 
mended for  concrete  and  flagstone  sidwalk  paving. 

Subgrade.—  The  subgrade  should  be  prepared  by  removing 
perishable  and  spongy  material,  and  by  rolling  and  thoroughly 
compacting  fills.  Fills  should  be  made  in  layers  of  about  6 
inches,  and  should  extend  at  least  one  foot  beyond  the  edge  of  the 
pavement,  in  order  to  keep  the  foundation  from  being  under- 
mined by  washing. 

In  the  central  and  northern  sections  of  this  country,  except 
when  the  subsoil  is  porous  and  conducts  water  readily,  a  porous 


144  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

foundation  of  cinders,  gravel,  crushed  stone,  or  slag  should  be 
laid  under  the  paved  sidewalk.  This  porous  base  should  be 
connected  to  a  drain,  so  that  water  which  reaches  it  will  be  lead 
away.  This  may  be  done  by  building  blind  drains  from  the  side- 
walk to  the  underdrain  to  the  curb.  A  thickness  of  4  to  6  in.  for 
the  foundation  is  used,  depending  upon  soil  condition  and  tem- 
perature.    For  typical  design  see  Fig.  18. 

Concrete  Walks. — Cement  concrete  is  the  most  commonly  used 
material  for  sidewalks,  as  it  closely  approaches  the  ideal.  The 
first  cost  is  moderately  low,  it  can  be  made  smooth  but  not 
slippery,  and  is  durable,  clean  and  attractive.  The  concrete 
pavement  is  laid  directly  on  the  prepared  sub-base;  it  may  be 
one  or  two  courses.  In  the  two-course  method,  a  layer  of  con- 
crete 3  to  4  in.  thick  is  first  placed.  This  concrete  is  of  a  mix, 
varying  from  1:3^:7  to  1:2:4,  a  common  proportion  being 
one  part  cement,  two  and  one-half  parts  sand  and  five  parts 
crushed  stone  or  gravel.  After  placing  it  should  be  thoroughly 
tamped  and  the  top  course  placed  immediately. 

The  top  course  is  made  of  a  rich  mixture,  with  stone  or  gravel 
screenings  for  the  coarse  aggregate.  A  proportion  commonly 
used  is  one  part  cement,  one  part  sand,  and  one  and  a  half  parts 
stone  screenings.  Often  a  mixture  of  one  part  cement  and  two 
parts  coarse  sand  is  used  with  equally  satisfactory  results.  The 
thickness  of  this  course  should  be  from  1  to  1^  in.  The  surface 
is  then  "floated  "with  a  wood  float,  leaving  it  just  rough  enough 
to  afford  a  good  foothold,  and  is  divided  into  squares.  These 
squares  may  vary  in  size  from  3  ft.  X  3  ft.  to  6  ft.  X  6  ft.,  but 
should  never  exceed  36  sq.  ft.  in  area.  Care  should  be  taken 
that  the  joints  extend  entirely  through  the  pavement. 

In  the  one-course  method  a  1 :2 :4  mix  is  used,  the  entire  thick- 
ness of  pavement  being  laid  at  once.  This  thickness  may  vary 
from  4  to  6  in.,  5  in.  being  a  common  thickness.  It  is  then 
finished  and  jointed  as  described  above.  One  course  construc- 
tion is  recommended,  as  it  is  less  expensive,  easier  to  lay,  and 
not  so  liable  to  disintegrate  as  two-course  work;  besides,  it  is 
not  so  likely  to  be  slippery,  a  common  defect  of  two-course 
walks. 

Where  the  walk  meets  the  curb  at  street  intersections  expan- 
sion joints  filled  with  a  bituminous  filler  should  be  employed. 
Similar  joints  should  be  provided  at  intervals  of  50  to  100  ft. 
along  the  walk.     Coloring   matter  or   lampblack   is  sometimes 


STREETS  AND  PAVEMENTS  145 

added  to  the  surface  to  take  off  the  glare  of  natural  concrete. 
Two  pounds  of  lampblack  to  a  barrel  of  cement  will  give  the  pave- 
ment a  light  slate  color,  and  10  pounds  a  dark  bluish  slate. 

A  concrete  walk  constructed  as  outlined  above  will  prove 
entirely  satisfactory.  Failures  of  concrete  walks  are  usually 
due  to  slumping  of  materials,  poor  workmanship,  or  inadequate 
provision  for  contraction  and  expansion  and  drainage. 

Brick  Walks. — Brick  walks  are  laid  in  some  localities,  dark  red 
building  brick  being  ordinarily  used.  The  foundation  is  prepared 
in  the  same  manner  as  for  concrete  walks.  About  2  in.  of 
clean  sand  is  spread  on  the  base,  and  the  brick  laid  on  side  either 
at  right  angles  to  the  line  of  the  walk  or  in  a  herringbone  pattern. 

The  brick  are  then  sprinkled  with  sand  and  then  tamped  under 
a  plank,  or  with  a  broad-surfaced  wooden  rammer.  Sand  is 
then  swept  into  the  joints.  Brick  sidewalks  have  a  tendency  to 
become  uneven,  and  are  more  difficult  to  keep  clean  than  cement 
concrete. 

Miscellaneous  Types. — Slabs  of  granite  or  sandstone  are  still 
occasionally  used  in  some  localities,  but  their  use  is  being  rapidly 
superseded  by  concrete.  They  are  expensive,  unless  local 
material  is  available,  and  it  is  difficult  to  prevent  unevenness 
at  the  joints,  by  settlement.  They  also  frequently  spall  and 
break. 

In  New  England  tar  concrete  is  quite  extensively  used.  This 
type  of  walk  is  built  in  two  courses.  The  lower  course  consists 
of  about  4  in.  of  coarse  gravel,  thoroughly  coated  with  tar. 
The  wearing  course  is  of  coarse  sand  and  tar,  mixed  hot,  laid 
about  1  in.  thick.  Each  course  is  tamped  and  rolled  as  soon 
as  laid.  The  walk  is  covered  with  a  thin  layer  of  sand  as  soon 
as  completed.  These  walks  are  not  very  satisfactory  and  are 
being  replaced  today  by  cement  concrete. 

A  type  of  walk  known  as  asphalt  mastic  has  been  used  in 
France  and  to  some  extent  in  certain  localities  in  this  country. 
A  mastic  is  prepared  from  a  combination  of  rock  asphalt  and  a 
refined  asphalt,  fluxed  with  an  asphaltic  base  petroleum.  Suffici- 
ent fluxed  asphalt  is  mixed  with  the  ground  rock  asphalt  to  give 
about  20  per  cent,  of  bitumen,  and  a  layer'of  this  mixture  about 
1  in.  thick  is  placed  on  a  4  to  6-in.  concrete  base.  A  small  amount 
of  fine  gravel  or  coarse  sand  is  then  rolled  into  the  surface  of  the 
warm  material.  This  form  of  walk  has  been  used  quite  exten- 
sively in  at  least  one  large  American  city,  for  walks  over  side- 

10 


Y* 


146  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

walk  basements,  on  bridges  and  in  parks  and  apparently  has 
given  very  good  results.  The  life  of  the  wearing  surface  is  not 
as  great  as  cement  concrete,  but  is  easier  to  walk  on  and  the 
cost,  including  base,  in  the  instance  cited  was  about  the  same  as 
that  of  cement  concrete. 

Sheet  asphalt  surface,  similar  in  many  respects  to  sheet  asphalt 
paving  has  been  used  in  parks  and  residential  districts  but  is  not 
as  durable  as  the  mastic  or  other  types  already  mentioned. 

Bituminous  macadam  walks  constructed  similar  to  bituminous 
macadam  pavements,  although  much  thinner  have  been  used  in 
a  few  cases  but  these  are  not  very  satisfactory  due  to  uneven 
wear  and  settlement. 

Asphalt  tile  walks,  consisting  of  tiles  or  blocks  of  compressed 
asphalt  and  mineral  aggregate,  laid  with  or  without  a  concrete 
base,  have  been  used  in  New  York  and  Boston  parks  and  else- 
where but  have  not  found  general  use  in  smaller  towns  and  cities. 

Where  it  is  necessary  to  keep  costs  down  to  the  lowest  possible 
point,  cinder,  gravel  or  slag  walks  may  at  times  be  built.  They 
are  cheap  and  give  fairly  satisfactory  results,  and  later  on  may 
serve  as  the  foundation  of  a  permanent  pavement.  The  prin- 
cipal objections  are  difficulty  in  cleaning  and  in  snow  and  ice 
removal. 

Clean,  coarse  cinders  should  be  used.  They  should  be  placed 
in  layers,  wetted  and  tamped.  The  total  thickness  may  vary  from 
6  £o  ^2sin.,  depending  on  the  character  of  the  subsoil. 
'  Curbs  and  Gutters. — Curbs  are  built  to  form  the  backs  of 
gutters  and  to  protect  sidewalks  or  planting  spaces  from  the 
encroachment  of  vehicles.  They  must  be  of  sufficient  strength 
to  resist  the  overturning  thrust  of  the  sidewalk  or  frost  action, 
and  sufficiently  strong  and  tough  to  withstand  the  shock  and 
abrasion  of  steel  tires.  Curbing  is  made  of  cement  concrete, 
granite,  limestone  or  sandstone.  Of  these,  cement  concrete  is 
now  the  most  widely  used,  the  materials  being  universally  avail- 
able, the  cost  comparatively  low,  and  concrete  being  easily 
adaptable  to  various  conditions. 

Stone  Curbs. — Stone  curbs  are  usually  4  to  8  in.  wide  and  12  to 
20  in.  deep.  The  projection  of  the  curb  above  the  gutter  may 
be  from  4  to  8  in.,  6  in.  being  the  standard  in  most  places. 
Shallow  stone  curbs  are  usually  set  in  a  6-in.  bed  of  concrete. 
Deep  curbs  should  be  set  on  broken  stone  or  gravel  foundations, 
unless  the  subsoil  is  naturally  well  drained. 


STREETS  AND  PAVEMENTS  147 

The  top  and  exposed  face  should  be  dressed  to  plane  surfaces, 
and  the  joints  and  other  faces  should  be  pointed,  so  as  to  permit 
close  joints  between  the  individual  stones  and  between  the 
curb  and  sidewalk  pavement  or  gutter.  Stone  curbs  are  ex- 
pensive, unless  local  stone  of  the  proper  quality  is  available, 
and  do  not  give  as  good  appearance  as  concrete. 

Combined  Concrete  Curbs  and  Gutters. — Concrete  curbs  are 
usually  built  in  place,  using  a  concrete  mixture  similar  to  that 
used  for  sidewalks.  The  practice  of  surfacing  the  exposed 
faces  with  mortar  has  been  generally  used,  but  to  an  increas- 
ing extent,  some  curbs  are  now  poured  in  one  piece,  omitting 
the  mortar  surfacing.  Steel  forms  are  much  better  than  wood, 
as  they  are  more  economical  and  give  a  much  better  line  and 
surface  to  the  concrete,  requiring  less  finishing.  Concrete  curbs 
are  usually  5  to  6  in.  wide,  18'to  24  in.  deep,  with  joints  spaced 
6  to  12  ft.  apart.  They  are  built  in  the  trench  on  compacted 
gravel,  stone  or  cinders,  or  on  an  underdrain  as  described  in  an 
earlier  part  of  this  chapter. 

The  combined  curb  and  gutter  has  come  into  favor  on  account 
of  its  cheapness  and  attractive  appearance.  A  typical  design 
of  this  is  shown  in  Fig.  18.  This  design  gives  a  pleasing  appear- 
ance, does  not  cause  damage  to  automobile  tires,  and  actually 
adds  to  the  effective  width  of  the  street,  by  cutting  down  the 
space  required  for  parking,  as  the  motorist  is  not  afraid  to  drive 
close  to  it. 

Gutters. — When  the  integral  concrete  curb  and  gutter  is  not 
used,  gutters  of  flag-stones,  brick,  stone  block  and  concrete  are 
commonly  built.  Gutters  should  always  be  built  on  a  paved 
street  and  especially  on  steep  grades  or  fills  where  washouts  are 
liable.  On  paved  streets  the  gutter  should  have  a  shallow  depth 
and  the  cross-section  should  conform  to  the  finished  pavement 
and  the  gutter  need  not  be  more  than  2  ft.  wide.  On  unpaved 
streets  or  macadam  streets,  the  gutter  should  be  deeper  and 
wider,  as  wide  as  36  in.  having  been  used,  in  order  that  the  gutter 
will  carry  all  the  water  and  thereby  prevent  washing  of  the 
roadway  along  the  sides. 

Flag  stone  gutters  laid  in  a  sand  cushion  may  be  the 
cheapest.  Brick  gutters  may  be  built  in  the  same  way,  but  they 
are  not  entirely  satisfactory  unless  a  concrete  base  is  employed. 
Stone  blocks  have  been  frequently  used  in  the  past,  but  all  these 
types  are  rapidly  being  superseded  by  concrete  for  residential 


148  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

developments.  Concrete  gutters  are  extensively  used  where  curbs 
are  built  of  stone  or  separate  concrete  section.  They  are  used  more 
extensively  than  brick  on  unpaved  or  macadam  streets  as  they 
can  be  more  easily  shaped  to  the  required  section  and  will  not 
loosen  up  as  quickly  as  brick  when  not  supported  by  the  pave- 
ment backing.  They  are  usually  about  6  in.  thick  and  built 
similar  to  a  one  course  concrete  roadway  paving. 

In  suburban  sections,  where  it  is  desired  to  avoid  the  use 
of  a  curb,  the  type  of  gutter  shown  in  Fig.  19,  has  often 
been  used  with  very  satisfactory  results,  from  the  standpoints 
of  economy  and  utility.  When  a  wide  planting  strip  is  used, 
this  gutter  gives  a  very  pleasing  park-like  appearance  to  the 
street. 

Maintenance  and  Repairs. — Cleaning. — Street  cleaning  may 
be  preventive  as  well  as  corrective,  and  the  former  may  well  be 
the  more  important.  Preventive  street  cleaning  may  be  carried 
out  at  small  cost  by  the  enforcement  of  local  ordinances  for- 
bidding such  things  as  sweeping  of  rubbish,  paper  and  the  like 
on  the  streets;  disposal  of  this  material  in  dumps  where  it  may 
be  scattered  by  the  wind;  storing  of  material  on  the  highway  by 
builders  unless  properly  supervised;  and  failure  to  use  proper 
receptacles  for  ashes,  garbage  and  rubbish.  These  things  are  of 
major  importance.  The  sanitary  condition  of  a  community  is 
affected  by  the  cleanliness  of  the  streets,  and  this  item  should 
not  be  neglected. 

Corrective  street  cleaning  in  industrial  communities  will 
usually  be  carried  out  by  one  or  more  men  assigned  to  it,  possibly 
combining  this  work  with  other  duties.  Police  officers  should 
be  instructed  to  report  promptly  any  violation  of  ordinances. 
When  hard  surfaced  pavements  are  built,  this  should  be  supple- 
mented by  periodical  flushings  with  a  hose  or  power  flushing 
machine.  The  condition  of  the  pavements  and  the  character  of 
traffic  attracted  by  the  streets  is  also  influenced  to  a  marked 
degree  by  their  cleanliness. 

Repairs. — It  cannot  be  too  strongly  emphasized  that  no  pave- 
ment will  give  satisfactory  service  unless  properly  maintained. 
The  amount  of  maintenance  required  for  the  different  types  of 
surfacings  varies  widely,  but  even  for  the  more  permanent  types 
some  work  is  necessary  every  year  if  the  best  results  are  to  be 
obtained.     It  is  very  important  also  that  breaks  or  holes  in 


STREETS  AND- PAVEMENTS  149 

the  pavement  should  be  repaired  promptly,  otherwise  delay 
will  mean  multiple  expense. 

Expansion  joints  should  be  cleaned  and  refilled,  cracks  should 
be  filled  with  bituminous  material,  holes  and  depressions  should 
be  repaired.  It  should  be  noted  that  holes  should  never  be  filled 
with  harder  material  than  that  which  makes  up  the  rest  of  the 
pavement,  as  the  final  result  of  this  practice  will  be  two  holes 
instead  of  one,  or  a  little  later,  a  hump  in  the  pavement. 

In  conclusion  it  is  pointed  out  that  as  are  the  streets,  so  is  the 
town.  A  poor  town  never  has  good  streets,  and  a  good  town 
seldom  has  poor  ones. 


CHAPTER  VI 
WATER  SUPPLY 

Quantity  of  Water  Required — Standards  of  Quality — 
Selection  of  Source  of  Supply — Purification  Systems — 
Distribution  of  Water — Piping  System — Contract 
Plans  and  Specifications — Financial 

Preface. — Water  is  a  prime  requisite  to  existence, — therefore, 
before  the  site  for  a  housing  development  is  finally  chosen,  an 
adequate  supply  of  pure,  potable  water  should  be  assured  within 
a  reasonable  distance  of  the  future  community. 

The  most  important  use  of  a  public  water  supply  is  that  of 
furnishing  water  for  domestic  use,  including  that  used  for  drink- 
ing and  culinary  purposes,  for  washing,  showers,  lavatories,  and 
flushing  closets.  The  essential  requirements  for  such  a  supply 
are:  first,  quality  which  is  of  fundamental  importance;  next, 
adequacy,  dependability  and  reasonableness  of  cost. 

Second  in  importance  is  the  use  of  water  for  fire  extinguish- 
ment, the  chief  requisites  being  quantity,  pressure  and  dependa- 
bility. The  third  use  is  that  for  public  requirements,  among 
which  are  street  cleaning,  sewer  flushing,  street  sprinkling  and  all 
water  used  by  public  institutions.  The  fourth  use  is  for  indus- 
try. The  primary  requirements  of  a  water  for  these  purposes 
are  quantity  and  dependability. 

QUANTITY  OF  WATER  REQUIRED 

Influences  Affecting  Consumption. — Metering. — It  is  probable 
that  the  most  important  factor  in  determining  the  consumption 
is  whether  the  water  is  sold  by  measure  or  otherwise.  The  gen- 
eral tendency  of  metering  is  to  reduce,  to  a  large  extent,  unneces- 
sary waste  and,  therefore,  the  installation  of  meters  in  industrial 
villages  and  housing  developments  is  to  be  strongly  recommended. 

The  marked  reduction  in  consumption  following  the  installation 
of  meters  in  various  cities  is  shown  in  Fig.  21.  This  relation 
between  metering  and  consumption  is  presented  in  the  form  of 

150 


WATER  SUPPLY 


151 


the  per  cent,  that  metering  in  various  amounts  reduces  the  use  of 
water.  The  data  are  based  on  records  of  use  in  85  American 
cities. 

Detection  of  Leakage  a?id  Waste. — Another  factor,  almost  as 
important  as  metering  in  its  effect  on  consumption,  is  the  care 


fc  0.80 

ft 

:3 
75 
| 

E  0.E.0 


0.40 


0.10 


V 

\ 

\ 

\ 
\ 

20 


40  60  80 

Percentage  of  Taps  Metered 

Fig.  21. — Effect  of  metering  on  the  use  of  water. 


I 'J0 


1908 


Fig.  22. — Effect  of  summer  temperature  on  the  per  capita  water  consumption 
in  thoroughly  metered  cities;  1908. 

used  in  the  avoidance  of  leakage  and  waste.  Leaks  in  mains  and 
services  cannot  be  entirely  eliminated.  It  would  be  next  to 
impossible  to  find  many  of  the  smaller  ones  and  even  if  located 
it  would  not  pay  to  uncover  the  pipes  and  repair  them.     The 


152 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


larger  leaks,  however,  can,  by  the  exercise  of  care  in  conducting 
leakage  tests,  be  located  and  stopped;  thus  one  of  the  most 
important  items  of  waste  can  be  eliminated. 


150  J? 


1917 


1918 


Fig.  23. 


-Effect  of  winter  temperature  on  the  per  capita  water  consumption  in 
highly  metered  cities;  1917-18. 


Milwaukee,  in  1916,  had  reduced  leakage  by  care  in  detecting 
and  stopping  waste  to  approximately  17  gallons  per  capita  per 
day;  and  Cleveland,  in  1914,  reported  also  a  reduction  to  about 
11  gallons  per  capita. 


|'40 

|  35 

,5  30 
& 

a 

.1  15 


/ 


0       I 


3       4       5       6       7       8       9       10 
Years  After  Water  Wa$  Introduced 


II      \l     13 


Fig.  24. 


-Relation  between  the  age  of  water  works  and  the  daily  per    capita 
consumption. 


Other  Factors.— The  wealth  and  habits  of  the  people  have  a 
more  or  less  indefinite  but  nevertheless  direct  bearing  on  the 
question  of  consumption.  Climate  also  has  a  very  considerable 
influence,  especially  upon  the  amount  used  for  lawn  and  street 


WATER  SUPPLY 


153 


sprinkling  and  public  purposes  and  that  which  is  used  to  prevent 
freezing.  The  effect  of  high  and  low  temperature  is  shown  on 
Figs.  22  and  23,  covering  the  period  of  high  temperature  in  1908 
and  the  cold  winter  of  1917-1918,  respectively. 

The  age  of  the  water  supply  and  the  piping  system  exerts  a 
considerable  influence  on  consumption.  As  the  consumers  be- 
come more  and  more  accustomed  to  the  comvenience  and  uses 
of  an  abundant  supply,  they  indulge  in  a  more  liberal  use  and 
often  at  the  same  time,  in  greater  wastefulness.  Age  of  street 
mains  and  services  plays  its  part  in  contributing  to  opportunities 
for  leakage  by  deterioration  at  joints,  connections  and  in  pipes 
themselves.  The  typical  effect  of  age  of  service  on  water  con- 
sumption is  shown  for  a  large  number  of  towns  on  Fig.  24  here- 
with. 

Consumption  of  Water  for  Various  Purposes. — Domestic  Use. — 
The  consumption  of  water  for  domestic  purposes  varies  between 
wide  limits,  dependent  upon  the  type  of  town  served  and  upon 
the  class  of  houses.  The  average  domestic  use  in  various  cities 
is  given  below,  showing  the  wide  variation  in  quantity  of  water 
used. 

Table  15. — Consumption  per  Capita  for  Domestic  Purposes,  as  Deter- 
mined by  Meter  Measurements 


City 


Consumption 

gallons  per 

day 


Remarks 


Boston,  Mass.  .  . 
Brookline,  Mass. 
Newton,  Mass . . . 
Belmont,  Mass .  . 
Maiden,  Mass. . . 
Milton,  Mass .  .  . 
Watertown,  Mas, 
Fall  River,  Mass 
Worcester,  Mass 
Yonkers,  N.  Y 


16. 


.6-59.0 

Residential 

44.3 

Residential 

26.5 

Residential 

17.7 

Residential 

19.6 

Residential 

16.8 

Residential 

15.3 

Residential 

11.2 

Manufacturing 

16.8 

Manufacturing 

20.6 

Manufacturing 

The  variations  in  domestic  consumption  corresponding  with 
various  types  of  houses  are  shown  in  the  records  of  the  Metro- 
politan Water  District  of  Boston,  Mass.1  given  in  Table  16. 

Commercial  Use. — Under  this  head,  there  should  be  included 
all  uses  for  mechanical,  trade  and  manufacturing  purposes.     Large 

1  .11.  N.  E.  \V.  \Y.  Assoc,  Vol.  27,  P.  56. 


154 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


Table  16. — Water  Consumption  in  Dwellings  of  Different  Classes 
in  the  Metropolitan  Water  District  Boston,   Mass. — 1908 


Kind  of  houses 


Consumption 

in  gallons  per 

capita  per 

day 


Single    (.including   some  sta- 
bles and  garages) 

2  family 

3  family 

4  family 

5  family 

6  family 

7  family 

8  family 

9  family 

10  family 

11  to  20  family 

21  to  30  family 

Over  30  family 

Combined  house  and  store . 


Total . 


9 
20 
25 
36 
31 

278 
86 
65 

113 

18 

9 

505 


1,208 


37 

48 

129 

382 

598 

1,032 

1,037 

10,631 

3,700 

3,107 

7,849 

2,199 

1,640 

21,410 


53,799 


140.9 
37.5 
61.2 
29.5 
76.2 
52.2 
35.5 
28.0 
27.5 
50.3 
35.3 
44.3 
25.1 
29.9 


Average  33 . 0 


amounts  of  water  are  used  in  office  buildings,  stores,  hotels, 
factories,  elevators  and  railroads.  The  use  for  these  purposes 
varies  greatly  in  different  communities.  In  1902,  it  varied  from 
12  to  46  gal.  per  capita  in  large  American  cities.  In  small 
housing  developments,  however,  the  amount,  of  water  used  for 
such  purposes  is  relatively  small  and  it  probably  is  fair  to  esti- 
mate the  consumption  for  commercial  purposes  at  from  5  to 
20  gal.  per  capita,  depending  on  local  conditions. 


Table  17. — Water  Used  forPublic  Purposes- 
District  in  1902 


-Boston  Metropolitan 


Public  buildings 

Drinking  and  ornamental  fountains.  . 

Street  sprinkling 

Flushing  pipes  and  extinguishing  tires 


Gallons  per 

capita  per 

day 


3.8 
1.0 

2.1 
0.2 

7.1 


WATER  SUPPLY 


155 


Public  Use. — Water  used  for  schools  and  other  public  buildings, 
street  sprinkling,  sewer  and  water  main  flushing,  fire  extinguish- 
ment and  other  occasional  uses  comes  under  this  classification. 
In  the  Boston  Metropolitan  Water  District,  water  was  used, 
in  1902,  as  shown  in  Table  17. 

It  is  difficult  to  make  a  close  estimate  of  the  quantity  used  for 
flushing  water  pipes  and  sewers  and  for  extinguishing  fires. 
Although  large  quantities  are  used  occasionally  for  these  purposes, 
the  total  quantity  consumed  during  a  year  is  comparatively 
small.  An  allowance  of  5  to  7  gal.  per  capita  for  public  use  will, 
in  most  cases,  prove  ample. 

Loss  and  Waste. — The  enormous  quantities  of  water  used  by 
some  of  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States,  when  compared 
with  the  actual  metered  use,  indicate  that  a  very  large  percent- 
age of  the  water  furnished  is  lost  through  leakage  or  is  wasted 
by  the  consumer.  Even  in  highly  metered  communities  the 
percent  of  water  pumped  which  is  not  accounted  for  may  easily 
equal  from  30  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  total  consumption,  as  is 
shown  in  Table  18. 

Table  18. — Use  of  Water  and  Percentage  Unaccounted  for  in  Well 

Metered  Cities1 


City 


Per  cent,  of 

taps 

metered 


Consumption 

per  capita 

gallons 


Per  cent,  not 

accounted 

for 


Brockton,  Mass.  .  . 
Cleveland,  Ohio . .  . 
Englewoocl,  N.  J .  . 
Fall  River,  Mass . . 
Hackensack,  N.  J. 
Lawrence,  Mass . . . 
Ridgefield,  N.  J... 

Ware,  Mass 

Wellesley,  Mass . . . 
West  Orange,  N.  J 
Yonkers,  N.  Y  . .  .  . 


100 
49 
100 
100 
100 
92 
100 
100 
100 
100 
100 


34 
96 

37 

46 

163 

44 

52 

83 


30 
21 
52 
13 

40 
39 
18 
39 
43 
20 
17 


1  1906,  J.  II.  Fuertes;  with  revisions. 

According  to  the  State  Department  of  Health  of  Massachu- 
setts, in  1900,  no  city  of  that  state,  having  over  90  per  cent,  of 
taps  metered,  accounts  for  over  62  per  cent,  of  the  water  furnished; 
while  one  fully  metered  city  finds  but  37  per  cent,  of  its  supply 
registered  by  such  devices. 


156 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


The  water  lost  through  waste  and  leakage  may  be  divided  into 
two  general  classes: — that  lost  by  leaks  in  the  main  pipes  and 
distribution  system,  and  that  lost  on  the  premises  of  the  con- 
sumer through  leaks  in  service  pipes  and  plumbing.  The 
amount  of  leakage  from  these  sources  is  dependent  upon  the  care 
used  in  laying  the  pipe  and  the  effort  made  to  locate  and  repair 
leaks.  All  in  turn  are  more  or  less  dependent  upon  the  total 
length  of  lines  to  be  maintained.  This  relation  is  amply  demon- 
strated by  Fig.  25,  based  upon  records  of  14  well  metered  cities. 

Loss  from  well  constructed  distribution  systems  of  2,500  to 
3,000  gal.  per  day  per  mile  was  deduced  by  Emil  Kuichling.1 
It  is  probable  that  leakage  in  a  new  system  will  not  be  materially 


25,000 


»  20,000 


15,000 


10,000 


c    5,000 


/ 

o/ 
/ 


V- 


/ 


/ 


/ 


/ 


y< 


/ 


-^~ 


y 


,s 


/ 


100 


?00  300  400 

Length  of  Distribution  System  in  Miles 


500 


600 


Fig.  25. — Leakage  and  waste  of  water  in  thoroughly  metered  cities. 

less  than  3,000  gal.  per  mile  daily,  unless  special  care  is  used  in 
testing  and  all  defects  remedied.  In  new  work,  200  to  250  gal. 
daily  per  mile  per  inch  of  diameter  of  pipe  probably  represents 
the  permissible  leakage,  and  it  is  likely  to  run  higher. 

Total  Consumption— In  the  case  of  a  new  supply,  where  the 
immediate  installation  of  meters  is  not  contemplated,  a  daily 
quantity  of  not  less  than  100  gallons  per  capita  should  be  pro- 
vided for,  based  upon  the  approximate  quantities  shown  in 
Table  19. 

i  Tians.  Am.  Soc.  C.  E.,  Vol.  38. 


WATER  SUPPLY  157 

Table  19. — Average  Consumption  in  Unmetered  Cities. 


Types  for  use 


Gallons  per  capita  per  day 


Minimum 


Maximum 


Average 


Domestic .  . . 
Commercial 

Public 

Loss 

Total.. 


30 
5 
3 

20 

58 


80 
30 
10 
35 

155 


50 

15 

5 

30 

100 


Should  the  supply  be  metered,  the  average  per  capita  consump- 
tion might  be  reduced  to  50  or  75  gal.,  most  of  the  reduction 
coining  in  the  domestic  and  commercial  classes. 

Variations  in  Consumption. — The  probable  maximum  con- 
sumption which  must  be  provided  for  depends  almost  wholly  on 
local  conditions.  The  average  variation  in  use  of  water,  based 
on  records  of  67  Massachusetts  cities,  is  shown  in  Table  20. 

Table  20. — Maximum  Water  Consumption  Based  on  Average  of  67 
Massachusetts  Cities  and  Towns1 


Gallons  per 

capita  per 

day 


Per  cent,  of 
yearly 
average 


Average  daily  for  the  year.  .  . 

Maximum  month 

Maximum  week 

Maximum  daily  use  of  water. 


63 

81 

93 

123 


100 
128 
147 
198 


1  Jl.  N.E.W.W.  Assoc,  Vol.  27,  p.  98. 

Although  in  exceptional  cases  the  maximum  daily  consumption 
may  equal  300  per  cent,  of  the  average,  the  figures  quoted  above 
may  be  taken  as  representative  of  general  conditions.  The 
hourly  demand  rate,  however,  which  may  occur  twice  a  day  may 
very  likely  be  as  high  as  300  per  cent,  of  the  average  daily. 

STANDARDS  OF  QUALITY 

General. — Those  qualities  which  distinguish  a  good  "safe" 
water  may  be  summed  up  in  a  negative  way  as  follows: 

First:  The  water  should  be  free  from  bacterial  contamination, 
sewage  pollution  and  all  other  waste  products. 


158 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


Second :  It  should  not  contain  an  excessive  amount  of  mineral 
matter. 

Third :  It  should  be  free  from  color,  odor,  taste  and  suspended 
matter,  and  preferably  should  be  delivered  at  a  temperature  of 
not  over  60  degrees  Fahrenheit. 

Sanitary  Quality. —  U.  S.  Treasury  Standard. — The  standard 
adopted  by  the  United  States  Treasury  Department,  in  determin- 
ing the  allowable  limits  of  contamination,  are  briefly:  the  37°C. 
bacteriological  count  on  nutrient  agar  at  24  hours,  shall  not 
exceed  100  per  c.c;  and  that  not  more  than  one  out  of  five 
10  c.c.  samples  of  the  water  shall  show  the  presence  of  Bacillus 
Coli. 

Classification  of  Great  Lakes  Water. — The  progress  report  of 
the  International  Joint  Commission,  covering  its  investigation 
of  the  Pollution  of  Boundary  Waters,  contains  the  sanitary 
classification  given  in  Table  21. 

Table  21. — Classification  of  Great  Lakes  Waters1 


Classification 


Bacillus  Coli 

per  100  cubic 

centimeters 


Total  bacteria 
on  agar  at  37° 

Centigrade 
per  cubic 

centimeter 


Unpolluted Less  than   2 

2  to  10 
10  to  20 
20  to  50 
Over  50 


Slight  pollution 

Considerable  pollution . 

Serious  pollution 

Gross  pollution 


Less  than  10 

10  to  25 

25  to  50 

50  to  100 

Over  100 


1  Progress  Report,  International  Joint  Commission  on  Pollution  of 
Boundary  Waters,  June  16,  1914,  p.  20. 

General  Standard. — The  sanitary  standard  as  to  B.  Coli,  as  re- 
quired by  the  U.  S.  Treasury  Department  is  extremely  severe 
and  is  difficult  and  generally  considered  impossible  of  continuous 
attainment  in  ordinary  water  works  practice.  General  practice 
appears  to  permit  50  to  75  total  bacteria  per  c.c.  at  37°C.  and 
2  to  5  Bacilli  Coli  per  100  c.c.  sample,  subject  to  restriction, 
however,  when  considered  in  conjunction  with  each  other  and  a 
knowledge  of  the  condition  of  the  source  of  supply. 

Physical  Quality. — Color. — The  allowable  concentration  of 
color  in  a  water  supply  is  subject  to  wide  limits  in  different  locali- 
ties, due  to  differences  in  custom  and  habits.  In  general,  in 
the  East  and  particularly  in  New  England,  whore  highly  colored 


WATER  SUPPLY 


159 


waters  are  common,  an  amber  color  of  20  parts  per  million  is  not 
objectionable;  while  in  Central  and  Western  United  States,  a 
color  of  even  10  parts  per  million  would  not  be  tolerated. 

Turbidity. — The  reverse  is  true  of  turbidity,  since  in  the  West, 
waters  of  100  parts  per  million  turbidity  are  frequently  counte- 
nanced; while  in  the  East,  a  water  with  a  turbidity  of  over  20 
parts  per  million  would  not  be  allowed.  However,  the  tendency 
in  modern  water  supply  practice  is  everywhere  toward  a  clear, 
brilliant  and  sparkling  water. 

Odor. — There  is  universal  repugnance  against  drinking  water 
with  an  odor.  A  very  faint  odor,  as  listed  in  standard  classifica- 
tions, is  not  particularly  noticeable,  but  the  number  of  object- 
ing consumers  increases  rapidly  when  forced  to  use  a  water  of 
a  faint  to  decided  odor. 

Chemical  Quality. — The  characteristics  of  a  "good"  water 
from  a  chemical  standpoint  are  given  in  Table  20. 


Table  22. — Allowable  Organic  and  Mineral  Constituents  in   Good 

Water1 

In  Parts  per  Million 


Constituent 


Allowable  quantities 


Surface  water     Ground  water 


Organic  Content 


Albuminoid   ammonia 0.15  0.4 

Free  ammonia 0.15  0.2 

Nitrites 0.01  0.02 

Dissolved  oxygen Not  less  than  40  per  cent. 

saturation 


Chlorine. 
Iron 


Hardness. 
Alkalinity . 

Sulphates. 


Mineral  Content 


1  to  10  parts  above  nor- 
mal 
0.1    to   0.5  according  to 

condition 
Dependent  on  locality 
Not     less    than    10   parts 

per  million 
Not    more  than  60  parts 

per  million 


1  Woodman-Norton;  Air,  Water  and  hood,  1914,  pp.  56-6S. 


160  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Organic. — The  ammonias  and  nitrites  are  indices  of  recent 
pollution  and  therefore  their  presence,  even  in  minute  quantities, 
casts  suspicion  on  the  source  of  supply.  Nitrates,  however,  indi- 
cate past  pollution  except  in  deep  ground  waters,  with  always 
the  possibility  of  renewed  pollution  in  the  future.  Their  presence, 
per  se,  is  not  sufficient  cause  for  condemnation,  particularly  in  a 
supply  wholly  from  subsurface  sources. 

The  lack  of  oxygen  dissolved  in  a  water  indicates  organic 
matter  has  been  or  is  present  in  a  decomposed  form,  which  is 
using  up  the  oxygen  in  the  water  for  its  oxidization.  Water 
which  is  less  than  40  per  cent,  saturated  with  oxygen  should  be 
condemned  as  unfit  for  use. 

Mineral. — The  presence  of  iron  in  a  supply  is  objectionable, 
because  of  the  stains  imparted  to  clothing  in  laundering,  or  to 
fixtures  or  utensils,  as  well  as  to  the  unpleasant  metallic  tastes 
when  present  in  quantity. 

Chlorine  is  found  in  all  natural  waters.  Its  source  may  be 
salt  deposits  in  the  soil,  or  sea  salt  carried  inland  from  the  sea 
by  wind,  precipitated  with  the  rain.  Where  the  normal  chlorine 
is  known,  an  excess,  in  the  absence  of  soil  deposits,  is  a  sure 
indication  of  pollution. 

The  allowable  hardness,  like  color  and  turbidity,  depends  on 
the  location  of  the  supply.  In  Eastern  United  States,  waters 
with  a  hardness  of  50  parts  per  million  are  rare,  while  in  the 
West  300  parts  of  hardness  is  not  uncommon.  In  general, 
however,  10  parts  per  million  of  hardness  characterizes  a  soft 
water,  25  to  30  parts  an  average  water,  50  parts  and  over  a  hard 
water,  and  a  hardness  of  150  parts  per  million  or  more  is  said  to 
be  "excessive." 

The  chief  objection  of  the  domestic  consumer  to  excessive 
hardness  is  the  amount  of  soap  required  to  soften  the  water — 
eight  parts  of  soap  being  required  to  counteract  one  part  of  hard- 
ness. Where  the  hardness  is  less  than  10  parts  per  million, 
however,  considerable  trouble  is  experienced  from  the  corrosive 
action  of  the  C02  in  the  water  on  the  plumbing  fixtures.  The 
most  desirable  water  for  general  use  contains  not  less  than  10 
or  more  than  30  parts  per  million  of  hardness. 

Alkalinity  and  sulphates  are  indices  of  particular  value  in  the 
coal  mining  regions,  where  water  may  be  contaminated  by  mine 
drainage. 


WATER  SUPPLY  161 

SELECTION  OF  SOURCE  OF  SUPPLY 

Extensions  cf  Existing  Supply. — Quantity. — Inmost  instances, 
housing  developments  are  constructed  either  adjacent  to  or  near 
existing  cities  or  towns;  so  that  connections  to  the  existing  utili- 
ties can  be  economically  made.  In  extending  the  existing  water 
supply  to  embrace  the  new  community,  it  is  desirable,  before 
entering  into  contractual  relations  with  the  water  works  organiza- 
tion, to  be  assured  that  the  water  plant  already  existing,  or  to  be 
enlarged,  can,  in  addition  to  the  supply  of  the  present  population, 
take  on  the  additional  population  of  the  housing  development. 

The  existing  community  should  be  content  to  be  supplied,  in  all 
probability,  at  the  rate  of  use  already  established  (if  reasonable). 
The  additional  population  will  be  supplied  at  the  amounts  pre- 
viously discussed  and  dependent  upon  character  of  service  and 
allowance  for  habits  and  use. 

Quality. — Water  furnished  to  a  housing  development  from 
an  adjacent  system  should  at  all  times  correspond  and  be  in 
accordance  with  the  sanitary,  physical  and  chemical  require- 
ments previously  set  forth.  To  this  end,  laboratory  control 
and  checks  should  be  made  from  time  to  time,  if  not  already 
introduced,  to  assure  continued  purity  and  safety. 

In  case  the  water  is  drawn  from  a  surface  supply  unfiltered  or 
unprotected,  the  installation  of  filtration  or  sterilization,  or  both, 
should  be  strongly  urged.  Such  may  be  an  absolute  necessity 
if  there  be  visible  contamination.  Cooperation  with  the  local 
health  authorities  should  be  sought,  to  enforce  the  adoption  of 
proper  safeguarding  measures. 

In  general,  waters  from  deep  artesian  wells,  or  from  carefully 
developed  ground  water  supplies  in  their  natural  state  are 
acceptable,  if  protected,  and  provided  the  mineral  content  is 
satisfactory. 

Pressure. — Where  extension  of  existing  water  supplies  is  neces- 
sary, it  is  desirable  to  have  some  reasonable  standard  of  pressure. 
While  housing  developments  are  largely  residential,  high  business 
or  other  public  buildings  may  occur  and  proper  fire  protection 
should  be  provided  therefor. 

In  general,  40  pounds  per  sq.  in.  is  the  minimum  domestic  fire 
pressure  that  should  be  provided  in  mains.  This  is  further 
discussed  under  the  subject  of  "Distribution  of  Water.'"' 

Where  fire  pressures  are  now  maintained  by  fire  service  pumps, 
ample  and  duplicate  pumping  machinery  should  be  present. 


162  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

New  Supply  System. — Where  a  water  supply  necessitates  the 
development  of  new  sources,  problems  arise  in  the  consideration 
of  this  important  subject  which  are  extremely  complex  and  deeply 
technical,  involving  the  sciences  of  bacteriology,  chemistry, 
hydraulics  and  engineering.  The  same  questions  of  quantity 
and  quality  arise  as  in  the  consideration  of  an  existing  system. 
It  is  intended  here  to  point  out,  only,  the  various  factors  affecting 
the  choice  of  a  source  of  supply;  together  with  general  principles 
concerning  the  requisite  size  of  works  to  adequately  care  for  the 
present  demands  for  water  and  also  such  increase  as  may  be 
required  by  the  future  growth  of  the  development. 

The  two  main  divisions  into  which  water  supplies  may  be 
separated  are  ground  water  supplies  and  surface  supplies.  It 
is  unusual  that  both  a  ground  and  surface  supply,  capable  of 
full  development,  are  available.  Should  such  a  situation  arise, 
the  choice  of  the  most  suitable  supply  may  be  determined  readily 
by  a  comparative  estimate  of  the  first  cost,  annual  charges  of 
each  development  and  a  study  of  the  relative  advantages  and 
disadvantages. 

Ground  Water  Supplies. — To  procure  water  economically  in 
the  large  quantities  required  for  public  supplies  from  a  well 
system,  there  must  be  present  a  water-bearing  formation  of  con- 
siderable extent  and  porosity.  The  location  of  such  a  deposit 
cannot  readily  be  determined  from  surface  indications,  but  re- 
quires either  an  extensive  study  of  the  geological  strata  under- 
lying the  well  site,  coupled  with  borings  and  tests;  or  the  random 
sinking  of  wells  in  various  localities,  with  properly  conducted 
pump  tests,  which  is  a  rather  expensive  experiment.  In  many 
localities,  considerable  data  on  water-bearing  strata  have  been 
collected  by  the  United  States  Geological  Survey  and  various 
state  agencies,  which  are  available  for  public  use,  and  are  a 
valuable  aid  in  selecting  a  possible  site  for  a  well  field. 

A  favorable  location  for  a  well  plant  will  be  at  a  point 
where  the.  ground  water  is  reached  with  the  least  lift  of  the 
pumps.  This  will  ordinarily  be  on  low  ground  and  often  in  the 
vicinity  of  surface  streams.  If  wells  thus  placed  are  pumped  too 
low,  they  may  draw  water  from  the  stream  as  well  as  from  the 
ground  water,  a  result  sometimes  undesirable,  particularly  when 
such  a  stream  is  polluted. 

The  best  method  of  estimating  the  capacity  of  a  well  field  is 
by  means  of  actual  pumping  tests  carried  on  for  a  sufficient  length 


WATER  SUPPLY  163 

of  time  to  bring  about  an  approximate  state  of  equilibrium  be- 
tween the  supply  and  demand,  as  determined  by  the  status  of  the 
ground  water  level.  Pumping  tests  of  short  duration  are  apt  to  be 
very  deceptive,  since  the  source  may  be  an  underground  basin  or 
reservoir  with  very  Little  movement,  corresponding  to  a  surface 
pond  with  small  watershed.  An  approximate  idea  of  the  amount 
of  water  actually  flowing  per  unit  of  time  through  the  area  in 
question  may  be  had  by  estimating  the  velocity  of  flow,  by  means 
of  electrical  and  salt  tests,  the  cross  section  of  the  porous  stratum, 
and  the  percentage  of  porous  space;  or  by  estimating  the  prob- 
able percolation  on  the  tributary  area. 

The  bacteriological  quality  of  groimd  waters  is  in  general 
excellent,  where  proper  precautions  are  taken  to  prevent  con- 
tamination by  surface  water  from  too  close  proximity  of  polluted 
sources.  The  water  passing  through  the  soil  layers,  which  act 
as  a  natural  filter,  usually  renders  the  water  in  deep  wells  quite 
satisfactory.  On  the  other  hand,  the  percolating  water,  by 
virtue  of  contained  carbon  dioxide  obtained  from  the  air,  dis- 
solves large  quantities  of  both  organic  and  inorganic  salts, 
often  rendering  the  water  unfit  for  use  on  account  of  excessive 
hardness,  or  high  content  of  iron  or  manganese.  In  the  presence 
of  humus  and  absence  of  oxygen,  the  sulphates  may  be  reduced 
to  hydrogen  sulphide  and  the  nitrogen  compounds  to  ammonia, 
thereby  rendering  the  water  nauseous.  Ordinarily  the  quality 
of  ground  water  is  impaired  by  storage. 

Where  the  hardness  of  the  subsurface  waters  is  excessive,  as 
is  likely  to  be  the  case  in  the  limestone  regions  of  the  central 
states,  softeniag  treatment  by  means  of  chemicals  and  filtration 
may  be  prerequisite.  In  the  majority  of  cases,  however,  no 
form  of  purification  other  than  aeration  and  perhaps  subsequent 
settling  is  required  with  a  ground  water  supply, — an  item  of 
considerable  importance  when  compared  with  a  surface  supply. 
This  advantage  is  somewhat  affected,  however,  by  the  fact  that 
with  a  well  supply,  pumping  is  invariably  necessary,  usually 
requiring  two  sets  of  pumps  to  lift  the  water  from  the  ground  to 
the  distribution  system;  while  with  a  surface  supply  it  is  some 
times  possible  to  obtain  a  gravity  supply  requiring  no  pumping  at 
all. 

Surface  Water  Supplies. — When  a  stream  is  under  consideration 
as  a  source  of  water  supply,  the  peculiarities  of  its  flow — the 
minimum,  maximum  and  total  flow  for  various  periods  of  time — 


164  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

are  among  the  first  things  to  be  determined.  The  most  accurate 
and  direct  method  of  determining  these  is  by  means  of  careful 
gagings  extending  over  several  years;  which,  to  be  of  the  greatest 
value,  must  include  periods  of  high  flood  and  periods  of  drought. 
The  United  States  Geological  Survey,  in  cooperation  with  various 
States  Commissions,  maintains  gaging  stations  on  most  of  the 
principal  streams  in  the  United  States,  with  records  available  to 
the  public. 

Where  gagings  are  not  available,  or  where  they  are  very 
limited  in  extejtt,  estimates  must  be  made  from  rainfall  records, 
absorption  and  run-off,  and  from  a  comparison  with  other  streams 
whose  flows  are  known. 

The  dry  weather  flow  of  streams  is  maintained  entirely  from 
ground  and  surface  storage;  and  as  facilities  for  such  storage 
vary  in  different  watersheds,  so  will  the  minimum  flows  be  unlike. 
For  streams  in  the  Atlantic  Coast  States,  records  indicate  that, 
for  watersheds  of  less  than  200  sq.  mi.  in  area,  the  minimum  flow 
varies  from  nearly  0.05  to  about  0.9  second  feet  per  square  mile, 
averaging  0.10  or  0.12.  In  the  upper  Mississippi  Valley  the 
minimum  flow  of  streams  is  much  less,  and  it  sometimes  becomes 
zero  for  watersheds  of  several  hundred  square  miles  drainage 
area,  while  further  west  the  same  is  true  of  much  larger  streams. 
In  general,  to  supply  a  population  of  5,000  persons,  a  drainage 
area,  without  artificial  storage,  of  10  to  40  sq.  mi.  will  be  required. 

Naturally  the  availability  of  running  streams  has  led  to  their 
adoption  as  sources  of  water  supply  more  frequently  than  any 
other  kind  of  surface  water;  but  it  must  be  remembered  that  this 
is  not  because  they  are  of  better  quality.  The  use  of  surface 
waters,  particularly  those  of  flowing  streams  in  densely  popu- 
lated watersheds,  is  a  menace  to  public  health,  unless  they  are 
first  subjected  to  some  method  of  artificial  purification. 

Wherever  the  minimum  rate  of  yield  of  a  source  of  water 
supply  is  less  than  the  demand,  the  excess  of  demand  over  supply 
may  often  be  provided  for  by  storing  the  surplus  waters  during 
periods  of  greater  yields  in  impounding  reservoirs.  Such  reser- 
voirs are  usually  formed  by  constructing  a  dam  across  the  valley 
of  the  stream.  Natural  ponds  or  lakes,  however,  can  frequently 
be  used  as  reservoirs.  The  value  of  ponds  or  lakes  for  storage 
will  depend  upon  the  available  (net)  storage  or  amount  the  sur- 
face can  be  varied  in  elevation,  and  not  upon  their  total  capacity. 

The  safe  yield  is  based  upon  considerations  of  rainfall,  run-off 


WA  TER  S UPPL Y  165 

and  storage;  or,  if  the  run-off  is  not  available,  upon  like  data  for 
a  similar  drainage  area  properly  weighed  for  local  conditions. 
Considerable  study  has  been  given  to  the  yield  of  watersheds  in 
New  England,  and  some  elsewhere  on  large  supplies,  and  experi- 
ence shows  that  only  small  storage  is  necessary  to  obtain  200,000 
to  300,000  gal.  daily  per  square  mile,  but  for  larger  yields  much 
larger  relative  storage  must  be  provided.  In  general,  the  storage 
which  will  be  required  to  supply  a  constant  draft  of  100,000  gal. 
daily  per  square  mile  from  a  given  area  will  vary  between  10  and 
35  mil.  gal.  per  square  mile,  in  the  Eastern  and  Central  parts  of 
the  United  States,  while  in  the  West  and  South  a  much  greater 
quantity  is  required.  It  is  generally  found  inexpedient  to  at- 
tempt to  secure  more  than  80  per  cent,  of  the  average  run-off; 
or  develop  more  than  500,000  gallons  per  square  mile  of 
drainage  area.  Swamp  lands  detract  from  the  storage  value  of 
a  watershed,  as  they  promote  evaporation. 

Having  decided  upon  the  area  which  may  be  available,  the  next 
step  is  to  select  a  suitable  reservoir  site.  The  location  is  largely 
determined  by  the  distance  of  the  reservoir  from,  and  elevation 
above,  the  point  of  distribution.  Long  distances  require  heavy 
expenditures  for  conduits  or  pipe  lines,  but  these  expenditures 
are  relatively  less  the  larger  the  quantity  of  water  furnished. 
For  larger  communities,  it  will  be  practicable  to  go  much  further 
for  water  than  for  small  cities.  It  is  desirable  that  the  reservoir 
shall  be  at  sufficient  elevation  to  enable  all  or  at  least  a  part  of 
the  consumers  to  be  served  by  gravity  alone,  and  it  will  be 
economy  to  spend  a  realtively  large  sum  of  money  for  conduits  to 
secure  this  advantage.  The  size  of  conduits  conducting  water 
from  the  source  of  supply  to  the  point  of  distribution  should  be 
such  as  to  deliver  the  requisite  quantity  of  water  without  undue 
loss  of  head. 

The  same  remarks  regarding  quality  of  surface  waters  apply 
as  in  the  previous  discussion;  but,  in  the  case  of  large  impounded 
supplies,  considerable  purification  takes  place  in  the  reservoir 
itself.  In  the  storage  of  surface  waters,  sedimentation  is  effec- 
ive  in  eliminating  much  of  the  suspended  matter,  including  liv- 
ing organisms  as  well  as  a  portion  of  the  organic  matter.  Where 
considerable  mineral  matter  is  in  suspension,  as  in  many  rivers 
especially  during  flood  seasons,  the  degree  of  purification  by 
subsidence  is  even  greater  than  where  the  suspended  solids  are 
less.     The  color  of  waters,  especially  when  due  to  organic  mat- 


1GG  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

tcr,  is  lessened  by  storage,  although  the  bleaching  action  of  the 
sun's  rays  does  not  extend  rapidly  to  great  depths.  In  general, 
about  10  to  30  per  cent,  reduction  in  color  may  be  expected. 
The  watershed  should  be  subject  to  strict  sanitary  inspection 
and  supervision,  and  even  where  filtration  is  not  necessary,  some 
type  of  sterilization  apparatus,  such  as  that  employing  liquid 
chlorine,  should  be  installed  for  emergency  use. 

Summary  of  Factors  Affecting  Choice  of  Supply. — Where  a 
housing  development  is  adjacent  to  a  city,  there  is  little  choice  in 
the  selection  of  a  source  of  supply,  since  it  is  usually  cheaper  to 
obtain  water  by  the  extension  of  the  city  system.  Where  a  new 
supply  must  be  sought,  the  choice  between  a  ground  water  sup- 
ply and  a  surface  supply  is  usualty  dependent  upon  the  availa- 
bility or  the  existence  of  such  supplies. 

The  quantity  of  water  available  is  perhaps  the  most  potent 
factor  in  the  choice  of  supply.  The  size  of  tributary  watershed 
of  a  surface  supply,  or  the  extent  of  the  water-bearing  stratum 
for  a  ground  water  supply,  is  of  fundamental  importance,  since 
it  determines  the  possibility  of  economical  future  extensions  to 
the  supply.  The  cost  of  development  of  a  surface  water  supply, 
by  the  construction  of  impounding  reservoirs,  is  usually  prohibi- 
tive for  a  small  housing  development ;  so  that  unless  the  water- 
shed of  a  natural  stream  near  the  site  is  of  sufficient  size  to  supply 
the  requisite  quantity  of  water  without  impounding,  the  de- 
velopment of  a  ground  water  supply  if  available  will  usually  be 
found  most  economical. 

Concerning  the  relative  quality  of  supplies,  a  clear,  soft,  cool, 
ground  water  supply  of  known  purity  is  most  acceptable. 
Where  such  is  not  available,  the  relative  costs  of  a  distant  un- 
polluted or  an  adjacent  contaminated  supply  must  be  fully 
weighed.  The  cost  of  softening  or  removing  iron  must  be  taken 
into  account  in  considering  alternate  supplies. 

A  gravity  supply,  even  for  a  portion  of  the  total  housing 
development,  is  very  desirable,  since  the  cost  of  pumping  even 
small  quantities  of  water  amounts  to  considerable. 

PURIFICATION  SYSTEMS 

Preface. — The  various  processes  of  purification  may  be 
divided  into  two  groups,  (1)  those  for  the  removal  of  suspended 
impurities,  and  (2)  those  for  the  removal  of  dissolved  impurities. 


WATER  SUPPLY  167 

Of  the  first  class  there  are  two  general  processes,  sedimentation 
and  filtration,  both  of  which  may  be  called  natural  processes. 
In  the  second  class  are  the  removal  of  dissolved  impurities  by- 
coagulation  or  aeration,  usually  involving  subsequent  sedimenta- 
tion or  filtration  for  the  removal  of  the  precipitate- 
Other  methods  of  purification  are  by  distillation,  in  which 
practically  all  impurities  are  removed,  and  the  various  methods 
of  sterilization,  in  which  the  bacteria  are  simply  destroyed. 

It  will  readily  be  seen  that  each  problem  in  water  purification 
demands  individual  treatment;  and  that  the  best  method  to 
adopt  in  any  case  will  depend  upon  the  character  of  the  water, 
the  use  to  which  it  is  to  be  put,  and  the  relative  costs  of  the 
various  treatments.  No  one  process  is  universally  applicable; 
furthermore,  of  two  processes  for  removing  the  same  kind  of 
impurity,  the  most  efficient  may  not  in  all  cases  be  the  best. 
The  highest  efficiency  is  not  always  necessary,  and  in  such  cases 
economy  may  properly  be  secured  by  the  adoption  of  a  system  of 
less  efficiency  but  of  lower  cost. 

Plain  Sedimentation. — Plain  subsidence,  or  sedimentation,  is 
adapted  to  the  purification  of  a  water  containing  a  subsidable 
silt  or  clay.  It  is  the  cheapest  method  of  removing  particles 
which  would  clog  an  ordinary  filter  and  which  settle  out  in  a 
moderately  short  time.  The  process  is  effected  in  open  basins, 
with  concrete  floors,  or  in  impounding  reservoirs  which  are 
designed  to  hold  from  a  few  hours'  to  several  day's  supply. 
Cleaning  is  usually  accomplished,  in  the  case  of  artificial  basins, 
by  the  use  of  hose  streams  which  flush  the  sediment  through 
specially  designed  drains.  The  size  of  sedimentation  basins  to 
effect  the  requisite  subsidence  is  dependent  mainly  upon  the 
size  of  particles  to  be  removed  and  somewhat  upon  their  specific 
gravity. 

Results. — In  general,  well  baffled  basins  without  too  great 
velocity  having  a  capacity  equal  to  6  hours'  flow,  will  remove 
particles  less  than  0.02  mm.  in  diameter;  while  a  capacity  equal 
to  24  hours'  flow  will  remove  particles  less  than  0.007  mm. 
Collodial  suspended  matter  in  clay-bearing  streams  cannot 
be  removed  even  after  weeks  of  sedimentation.  The  efficiency 
of  sedimentation  is  a  function  of  the  area  and  of  the  specific 
gravity  and  shape  of  the  particles. 

Filtration. — The  two  principal  classes  of  filters  are  "Slow 
Sand,"   or   "English,"   and    "Rapid   Sand,"   or   "Mechanical" 


168 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


filters.  Each  is  particularly  adapted  to  the  purification  of  cer- 
tain types  of  water,  both  are  used  with  preliminary  sedimentation. 

Slow  Sand  Filters. — For  a  water  having  a  turbidity  generally 
less  than  50  parts  per  million,  or  a  color  less  than  20  parts 
per  million,  slow  sand  filters,  without  coagulation,  give  excellent 
results.  They  consist  of  artificial  sand-filter  beds  contained  in 
masonry  basins.  The  size  of  units  is  large  compared  with  the 
rapid  sand  filter,  each  unit  containing  about  one  acre. 

The  influent  containing  impurities  is  applied  to  the  top  of 
the  sand  layer  at  a  rate  of  2  to  6  million  gallons  per  acre  per 
day,  dependent  upon  the  character  of  the  water.  The  filter 
acts  primarily  as  a  strainer,  the  interstices  between  the  sand 
grains  being  small  and  serving  to  stop  all  particles  too  large  to 
pass  through  them.  The  effluent  is  drawn  off  the  filter  through 
a  system  of  underdrains,  constructed  of  tile  pipe  with  open 
joints. 

When  the  accumulation  of  impurities  on  top  of  the  sand  layer 
has  become  so  great  that  the  loss  of  head  through  the  filter 
equals  3  to  4  ft.,  the  filter  is  cleaned  by  scraping  ^  in.  to  %  m. 
of  sand  from  the  top;  a  process  which  must  be  repeated  every 
1  to  3  months.  About  once  a  year  the  sand  so  removed  is  re- 
placed after  it  has  been  washed  and  cleaned  of  gross  impurities. 

The  bacteriological  efficiency  of  the  slow  sand  filter  varies 
between  95  and  99  per  cent.  Some  typical  results  are  shown  in 
Table  23  below. 


Table     23. — Bacteriological 

Efficiency     of     Slow     Sand     Filter 

Location 

Year  of  record 

Efficiency  per   cent. 

Lawrence,    Mass.    . 

Ave.— 1909-1916 
Ave.— 1909-1916 
Ave.— 1907-1912 
Ave.— 1917-1918 

Old  filter 

97.5 

New  filter 

96.9 

Washington,  D.  C 

98.4 

Albany,  N.  Y 

95.6 

About  one-third  of  the  color  can  be  removed  in  the  process  of 
filtration,  while  25  to  50  parts  per  million  of  turbidity  can  be 
successfully  applied  to  the  filter. 

Rapid  Sand  Filters. — The  chief  use  of  the  "Rapid  Sand"  or 
"Mechanical"  filter  is  in  the  purification  of  waters  having  a 
turbidity  of  more  than  50  parts  per  million  or  a  color  of  more 


WATER  SUPPLY  169 

than  30  parts  per  million.  In  contradistinction  to  the  slow  sand 
filter,  the  influent  is  applied  to  the  sand  layer  at  a  rate  of  about 
125  million  gallons  per  acre  per  day,  after  addition  of  coagulating 
chemicals  such  as  aluminum  sulphate,  or  lime  and  iron.  The 
size  of  sand  particles  is  somewhat  larger  in  the  rapid  than  in  the 
slow  sand  filter,  their  effective  sizes  being  0.45  to  0.50  mm.  and 
0.25  to  0.30  mm.  respectively.  The  effluent  is  drawn  off  through 
a  specially  designed  strainer-system,  which  also  serves  as  an  inlet 
to  the  wash  water. 

Washing  the  filter,  which  becomes  necessary  when  the  lost 
head  equals  7  to  10  ft.,  or  every  12  to  24  hrs.,  is  accomplished  by 
reversing  the  direction  of  flow  through  the  filter.  The  "mat" 
on  the  surface  is  lifted  by  the  rapid  flow  of  water  and  is  carried 
off  through  special  gutters  which  connect  with  the  sewer.  The 
quantity  of  wash  water  required  varies  from  0.4  per  cent,  to 
1.0  per  cent,  of  the  total  quantity  filtered.  The  filter  "mat" 
in  this  case  is  formed  by  the  flocculent  precipitate  resulting  from 
the  addition  of  chemicals  prior  to  the  filtration  process. 

The  bacteriological  efficiency  of  rapid  sand  filters  is  about 
the  same  as  the  slow  sand  type.  Some  typical  results  are 
shown  in  Table  24  below.  These  results  are  apparently  higher 
than  in  the  case  of  slow  sand  filters;  however,  the  growth  of 
bacteria  in  the  underdrains  of  the  latter  reduces  the  apparent 
percentage  removal. 

Table    24. — Bacteriological    Efficiency    of    Rapid    Sand    Filters 


!  i  •-  ation 

Year  of  record       Efficiency  per    cent. 

New  Orleans,  La 

Columbus,  Ohio 

Cincinnati,  Ohio 

Louisville,  Ky 

Ave.  1909-1918 

Ave.  1918 
Ave.  1917-1918 
Ave.  1917 

98.9 
99.1 
99.8 
99.8 

The  removal  of  high  color  and  turbidity  is  practically  without 
limit,  since  it  is  dependent  upon  the  addition  of  chemicals,  the 
greater  turbidity  requiring  more  precipitant. 

Coagulation. — The  purposes  of  coagulation  are  to  collect  the 
fine  suspended  matter  in  the  water  into  clots  or  masses  of  a  size 
which  will  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  sedimentation  basins,  and 
also  to  form  a  film  over  the  filter  sand  preventing  even  the  finest 


170  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

suspended   particles   from   passing  through.     Coagulation   also 
assists  in  removing  color,  odors  and  tastes  from  the  water. 

The  process  of  coagulation,  principally  used  with  rapid  filtra- 
tion, consists  in  the  addition  of  salts  of  aluminum  or  iron  to  a 
water  containing  solutions  of  hydroxides,  carbonates  or  bicar- 
bonates  of  the  alkalis  or  alkaline  earths,  thereby  forming  gela- 
tinous precipitates  of  the  hydroxides  of  the  metals.  As  is 
commonly  the  case  of  solutions  in  water,  such  floe  tends  to  form 
about  the  particles  of  silt,  bacteria,  etc.,  present  in  the  water; 
and,  uniting  with  other  flakes  of  coagulum  the  masses  thus  formed, 
either  settle  to  the  bottom  of  the  sedimentation  basin  or  are  finally 
caught  on  the  filter  surface.  Coagulation  with  alum,  without 
subsequent  filtration  is  not  to  be  recommended  for  a  ♦potable 
water  supply. 

Aluminum  sulphate  is  very  successful  in  removing  color  caused 
by  the  tannates  and  gailates  in  swamp  water.  17  parts  per  mil- 
lion will  remove  about  10  parts  per  million  of  color.  In  the 
removal  of  turbidity  the  amount  required  depends  on  the 
fineness  and  amount  of  turbidity.  Aluminum  sulphate  will 
react  directly  with  the  natural  alkalinity  of  the  water,  if  there  is 
sufficient  of  the  latter.  Each  part  per  million  requires  for  com- 
plete reaction  from  0.3  to  0.45  part  per  million  of  natural  alka- 
linity, unless  there  be  large  amounts  of  organic  matter.  De- 
ficiencies in  alkalinity  may  be  corrected  by  the  addition  of  lime 
or  soda  ash. 

The  advantages  of  the  use  of  ferrous  sulphate  over  "alum" 
are : — the  cost  of  treatment  is  generally  cheaper,  especially  with 
very  turbid  waters;  and  the  coagulum  formed  is  of  greater  spe- 
cific gravity  than  in  the  case  of  alum,  causing  a  more  rapid  sedi- 
mentation. It  cannot,  however,  well  be  used  with  colored 
swamp  water. 

Sterilization. — While  properly  treated  and  filtered  water  is 
practically  free  from  bacteria,  it  has  of  late  years  become  custo- 
mary to  treat  the  filtrate  with  a  germicide  as  an  additional 
piecaution. 

Hypochlorite  of  lime  has  been  very  extensively  used  for  this 
purpose  but  is  being  replaced  by  the  use  of  liquid  chlorine.  The 
latter  is  easier  to  control,  more  exact  in  application  and  is  not 
so  likely  to  cause  tastes  and  odors.  Sodium  hypochlorite  and 
ultra  violet  rays  have  been  used  to  some  extent.  Ozone  and 
copper  sulphate  have  also  been  tried. 


WATER  SUPPLY 


171 


Hypochlorite  exerts  a  destructive  action  on  the  bacteria  in 
the  water,  readily  destroying  such  pathological  bacteria  as  B. 
Typhosus  and  the  cholera  spirillum.  The  bleach  may  be  ap- 
plied to  the  raw,  settled  or  filtered  water,  but  is  least  effectively 
applied  to  the  raw  water. 

The  germicidal  effect  of  liquid  chlorine  results  from  the  libera- 
tion of  nascent  oxygen  in  solutions  as  well  as  from  its  action  as 
a  specific  germ  poison. 


1870         "     1880  1890  1900  1910  1920 

Fig.  26. — Growth  of  water  filtration  in  the  United  States 


Summary. — The  constantly  increasing  pollution  of  sources  of 
water  supply  is  making  necessary  the  purification  of  practically 
all  supplies.  The  trend  of  the  times  appears  to  be  toward  the 
adoption  of  rapid  sand  filters  for  general  purification.  Fig.  26 
herewith  shows  the  increasing  popularity  of  the  rapid  sand  filters 
in  the  United  States. 

The  various  chemicals  employed  by  124  filtration  plants  in 
Pennsylvania  is  typical  of  plants  throughout  the  country.  A 
summary  is  shown  below  in  Table  25. 


172  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Table  25. — Chemicals  Used  in  Water  Purification  in  Pennsylvania 
Based  upon  a  Study  op  124  Filtration  Plants 


Chemical  employed 


Number  of 
plants  em- 
ploying 
chemicals 


Sulphate  of  aluminum. 

Hydrated  lime 

Iron  sulphate 

Chlorinated  lime 

Chlorine  gas 

Sodium  thiosulphatc .  . . 

Copper  sulphate 

None 


102 

20 

4 

104 

10 

1 

1 

3 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  WATER 

Pressure  Requirements. — Domestic  Use. — For  domestic  use, 
it  is  generally  found  that  a  minimum  service  pressure  of  20  pounds 
per  square  inch  on  the  top  floor  of  a  dwelling  house  will  give  a  flow  of 
water  that  is  completely  satisfactory.  Where  houses  are  not 
more  than  three  stories  in  height,  this  means  that  a  pressure  of 
about  35  pounds  at  the  street  level  is  required.  A  pressure  of 
50  pounds  per  square  inch  at  the  curb  would  generally  supply 
buildings  six  stories  in  height  with  satisfactory  water  pressures. 
Pressures  of  75  to  100  pounds  are  required  in  business  districts. 

At  the  highest  point  in  the  development,  pressures  somewhat 
lower  than  the  above  limit  may  be  permitted.  In  special  in- 
stances of  this  kind,  in  strictly  residence  districts  where  water  is 
not  used  above  the  second  floor,  pressures  at  the  curb  as  low  as 
25  pounds  per  square  inch  have  been  and  are  used  with  reasonable 
results,  provided  the  service  pipe  and  inside  plumbing  are  ca- 
pacious enough. 

Fire  Service. — For  fighting  fires,  where  fire  engines  are  used, 
the  only  demand  upon  the  piping  system  is  to  supply  water  to 
the  engines  without  requiring  them  to  work  under  a  suction  lift. 
For  this  purpose,  an  actual  pressure  of  20  lb.  per  sq.  in.  at  fire 
hydrants  is  as  good  as  more,  providing  such  a  pressure  be  consist- 
ently maintained  underdraft. 

It  is  common  practice  in  small  systems  to  so  arrange  the  pump- 
ing works  that  pressures  in  the  distribution  system  may  be  raised 
temporarily  during  times  of  fire,  thus  avoiding  the  use  of  fire 


WATER  SUPPLY  173 

engines.     This  subject  of  fire  protection  facilities  is  one  fully 
covered  under  "Piping  System". 

Fire  Protection.— Value.— The  value  of  fire  protection  is  not 
only  shown  in  the  lessened  property  damage,  but  is  also  evident 
in  the  decreased  insurance  rates  resulting  from  the  installation 
of  adequate  fire  fighting  facilities.  Installation  of  better  fire 
fighting  facilities  will  bring  about  a  reduction  in  rates  of  insur- 
ance, other  things  being  equal. 

Cost.— The  cost  of  furnishing  water  for  fire  protection  to 
property  is  out  of  all  proportion  to  the  amount  of  water  used,  for, 
while  the  cost  of  construction  is  greatly  affected,  the  amount  of 
water  consumed  is  slight.  The  extra  cost  involved  in  furnishing 
adequate  fire  protection  is  due  largely  to  increased  pumping 
capacity,  size  of  mains,  reservoirs  or  standpipes,  and  to  hydrants 
and  connections. 

Careful  estimates  place  the  proportion  of  interest,  depreciation 
and  fixed  charges  chargeable  against  fire  protection  at  one- 
quarter  to  one-half  of  those  of  the  entire  water  works  system, 
inversely  dependent  upon  the  size.  Comparative  studies  have 
shown  that,  except  in  a  few  of  our  largest  cities,  it  is  impracti- 
cable to  maintain  a  separate  high  pressure  distribution  system 
for  fire  protection.  However,  cases  may  arise  in  housing  develop- 
ments where  it  is  possible  to  secure  a  limited  amount  of  pure 
water  for  domestic  purposes  and  to  supply  water  for  fire  pur- 
poses pumped  directly  from  a  polluted  source;  a  dual  system  may 
thus  prove  economical  and  wise. 

The  use  of  horse  or  motor  driven  fire  engines  is  usually  more 
economical  than  the  attempt  to  maintain  high  pressures  through- 
out the  combined  domestic  and  fire  service  system. 

Pumping  Works.— Design. — Where  water  cannot  be  obtained 
at  an  elevation  sufficient  to  produce  a  satisfactory  gravity  pres- 
sure at  the  points  where  it  is  to  be  used,  it  becomes  necessary 
to  provide  a  pumping  plant  for  this  purpose. 

This  design  involves  the  selection  of: 

(1)  Best  source  of  energy  for  power  purposes. 

(2)  Most  economical  means  of  generation  and  transmission. 

(3)  Type  of  pump  best  adapted  for  the  conditions. 

These  factors  are  often  largely  affected  by  the  nature  of  the 
source  of  water  supply,  and  by  various  other  features  of  the  water 
works  system. 

Pumping  units  seldom  operate  at  full  normal  capacity  all  the 


174  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

time.  Efficiency  at  half  load  is  much  less  than  at  rated  capacity; 
hence,  the  theoretical  duty  obtained  on  test  is  not  a  true  measure 
of  results  which  will  be  obtained  in  actual  operation.  A  common 
error  in  the  design  of  pumping  stations  is  to  subdivide  the 
maximum  total  pumping  capacity  required  into  units  of  equal 
capacity.  It  is  usual  that  a  subdivision  into  different  sizes  will 
allow  each  unit  to  be  operated  at  full  capacity,  and  thus  the  result 
will  be  more  economical  than  would  otherwise  be  possible. 

Reciprocating  Pumps. — In  pumps  of  this  type,  a  piston  or 
plunger  (which  is  the  displacing  agency)  reciprocates  in  a  closed 
cylinder,  provided  with  the  necessary  inlet  and  outlet  valves, 
and  alternately  inspires  and  discharges  the  water  from  the 
chamber.  Pumps  of  the  piston  type,  owing  to  the  facility  with 
which  the  packing  can  be  renewed,  and  the  smaller  clearance 
spaces  in  the  pump  cylinders,  are  particularly  efficient  for 
lifting  water  by  suction,  especially  where  it  is  impossible  to 
prime  the  suction  piping  before  starting  the  pump. 

A  comparison  of  the  volume  of  water  pumped  and  the  theo- 
retical displacement  of  the  piston  gives  the  loss  of  water  due  to 
"slippage."  Few  pumps  operate  with  less  than  4  to  5  per  cent, 
"slip",  while  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  10  to  30  per  cent.  The 
ordinary  efficiency  of  reciprocating  pumps  varies  from  60  to  85 
per  cent. 

Centrifugal  Pumps. — In  impeller  pumps,  of  which  the  centri- 
fugal is  a  familiar  example,  the  volume  of  water  is  moved  by  the 
continuous  application  of  power  through  some  mechanical 
agency  or  medium.  The  centrifugal  pump  consists  of  a  set  of 
straight  or  bent  vanes  or  impellers  mounted  on  a  shaft,  the  whole 
rotating  in  a  specially  designed  case.  The  water  which  enters 
between  the  vanes,  through  an  annular  orifice  surrounding  the 
shaft,  is  thrown  outward  toward  the  periphery  by  the  centrifugal 
force  developed  by  the  rotation  of  the  shaft. 

As  the  apparatus  contains  no  valves  or  parts,  it  is  particularly 
adapted  to  the  .handling  of  water  containing  sand  or  grit.  As 
its  discharge  is  continuous,  it  has  an  advantage  over  reciprocating 
pumps  in  freedom  from  water  hammer  in  the  suction  and  dis- 
charge pipes. 

Each  centrifugal  pump  is  designed  for  special  conditions  of 
head  and  speed  and  operates  at  maximum  efficiency  only  when 
these  conditions  are  fulfilled.  When  any  alteration  occurs  in 
these  two  factors,  a  corresponding  drop  in  efficiency  is  noted. 


WATERS  UPPL  Y  175 

The  ordinary  efficiency  of  a  centrifugal  pump  varies  between  a 
minimum  of  50  per  cent,  and  a  maximum  of  80  per  cent, 

Deep  Well  Pumps.— There  are  three  principal  types  of  deep 
well  pumps  adapted  to  small  water  works  installation,  namely: 
the  reciprocating,  centrifugal  and  air  lift.  The  first  two  are 
similar  in  principle  to  the  respective  types  discussed  above  and 
need  no  further  discussion. 

The  air  lift  involves  the  discharge  at  the  bottom  of  the  well, 
or  at  least  a  considerable  distance  below  the  water  surface,  of 
air  into  the  mouth  of  the  delivery  tube.  The  air  mixes  with  the 
water  and  the  specific  gravity  of  the  mixture  is  so  reduced  that 
the  pressure  of  water  outside  the  delivery  tube  causes  the  mix- 
ture to  overflow  at  the  top.  Evidently,  the  greater  the  length 
of  pipe  below  the  surface,  the  greater  the  difference  between  the 
weight  of  the  columns  within  and  without  the  tube,  i.e.,  the 
greater  the  submergence  and  the  higher  the  water  can  be  lifted. 
Generally  the  depth  of  submergence  is  made  1.5  to  2  times  the  lift. 

The  air  lift  is  especially  adapted  to  raising  water  from  great 
depths.  The  efficiency  varies  between  a  minimum  of  15  per 
cent,  and  a  maximum  of  45  to  50  per  cent. 

PIPING  SYSTEM 

General. — The  piping  system  includes  all  mains  and  lateral 
pipes,  standpipes  and  distributing  reservoirs,  gates,  meters,  and 
all  services  and  connections.  The  piping  in  a  distribution  system 
must  be  designed  so  that  water  can  be  supplied  to  any  point 
at  any  time  at  the  greatest  rate  that  may  fairly  be  demanded 
at  that  place. 

Reservoirs. — The  purposes  and  functions  of  a  service  reservoir 

are : 

1.  To  equalize  pressures  in  the  distribution  system,  by  providing  a 
nearly  constant  level  water  surface  from  which  these  take  their  source. 

2.  To  equalize,  or  to  reduce  to  a  uniform  rate,  the  draft  upon  the 
transmission  lines  leading  from  the  source  of  supply  and  in  this  way  to 
increase  their  adequacy  and  thus  postpone  the  necessary  increases  in 
the  capacity  of  such  lines. 

3.  To  provide  a  reserve  supply  of  water  to  be  used  in  such  emergencies 
as  conflagrations,  or  failure  of  the  transmission  lines  by  rupture,  or  to 
tide  over  supply  troubles  of  short  duration. 

4.  To  equalize  the  momentary  variations  between  supply  and  demand 
and  fluctuations  in  pressure. 

5.  To  allow  more  uniform  operation  of  pumping  machinery. 


176  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

The  proper  size  of  reservoir  to  meet  the  above  conditions  is 
determined  by  the  fluctuations  in  domestic  draft  and  fire  fighting 
uses.  In  general,  in  small  communities,  especially  where  water 
is  supplied  from  a  distance,  the  service  reservoir  should  hold  at 
least  one  day's  supply.  For  fire  protection,  the  National  Board 
of  Fire  Underwriters  recommends  a  capacity  sufficient  to  main- 
tain the  total  number  of  required  fire  streams  for  a  period  of 
from  6  to  10  hours. 

There  are  three  general  types  of  service  reservoir,  namely; — 
basins,  usually  constructed  in  cut  and  fill  and  generally  lined  with 
masonry;  standpipes  of  concrete  or  steel;  and  tanks  of  wood  or 
steel. 

Basins  are  usually  constructed  on  the  top  or  side  of  a  hill 
of  sufficient  elevation  to  give  the  requisite  pressure.  The  most 
economical  shape  is  determined  by  its  location,  the  round  reser- 
voir often  being  used  on  a  hilltop,  while  an  oval  shape  is  better 
suited  to  side  hill  locations.  It  is  not  unusual  to  cover  the  reser- 
voir with  a  concrete  roof  of  the  groined  arch  type. 

Standpipes  are  well  suited  to  the  use  of  small  communities, 
especially  where  the  consideration  of  pressure  is  vital.  The 
general  practice  has  been  to  install  standpipes  and  elevated  tanks 
of  sufficient  capacity  to  properly  protect  the  small  community. 
A  capacity  of  30,000  gal.  is  a  minimum  even  for  the  smallest 
community.  Reinforced  concrete  has  been  used  successfully 
for  tanks  of  a  variety  of  diameters  and  heights,  as  large  as  100  ft. 
and  150  ft.,  respectively.  Some  difficulty  has  been  experienced 
in  obtaining  waterproof  joints  in  the  concrete,  especially  in  the 
higher  standpipes. 

Steel  standpipes  were  much  used  until  about  1910,  but  owing 
to  their  greater  cost  and  the  great  danger  of  failure  of  high  stand- 
pipes,  few  are  being  built  now.  Elevated  wood  and  steel  tanks 
are  largely  replacing  standpipes  in  small  communities. 

Fire  Service. — Quantity  Required. — The  amount  of  water  to 
be  provided  for  fire  service  depends  upon  many  circumstances; 
among  others,  the  size  and  proximity  of  buildings,  the  materials 
and  methods  of  construction,  the  available  pressure,  the  avail- 
ability of  auxiliary  fire  systems,  the  probable  loss  of  life  and 
property  from  a  bad  fire,  the  cost  of  making  a  given  quantity 
of  water  available  and  the  financial  ability  of  the  system  or 
community  to  pay  for  doing  it. 

Authorities   differ  somewhat   in   the   number  of  fire  streams 


WATER  SUPPLY 


177 


required   simultaneously   to   quench   fires   in   various   sizes    of 
American  cities,  as  shown  below  in  Table  26. 

Table  26.— Estimated  Number  of  Fire  Streams  Required  Simulta- 
neously in  American  Cities  of  Various  Magnitudes1 


Population  of 
.(immunity 

Number  of  fire  streams  required  simultaneously 

Freeman 

Fanning 

Shedd 

Kuichling 

1,000 

4,000 

5,000 

10,000 

20,000 

40,000 

2  to  3 

4  to  S 

6  to  12 

8  to  15 

12  to  18 

7 
10 

5 

7 
10 
14 

3 
6 
6 
9 

12 

18 

»  Turneaure  &  Russell:  Public  Water  Supplies,  1916,  p.  745. 
The  values  as  given  by  Mr.  Kuichling,  which  have  been  widely 
used,  may  be  expressed  by  the  formula  y  =  2.8\/z>  where  "y" 
equals  the  number  of  streams  and  "x"  equals  the  population 
in  thousands. 

Another  method  of  computation  used  by  the  United  States 
Shipping  Board,  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation,  Passenger 
Transportation  and  Housing  Division,  in  its  recent  housing 
developments,  was  to  provide,  in  addition  to  the  domestic 
supply,  fire  protection  capacity  at  a  rate  computed  in  million 
gallons  per  day  equivalent  to  the  square  root  of  the  population  in 
thousands. 

During  fires,  however,  it  should  be  possible  to  maintain  the 
draft  on  the  distribution  system  without  seriously  interrupting 
the  domestic  or  industrial  service.  In  other  words,  the  system 
must  be  adequate  to  care  for  a  conflagration,  plus  normal  indus- 
trial and  domestic  demand,  and  this  mark  must  be  set  as  the  goal 
in  the  design  of  a  proper  distribution  system. 

Pressure  Required.— For  fighting  fires  directly  from  the  mains, 
without  the  use  of  auxiliary  fire  engines,  the  National  Board  of 
Fire  Underwriters  requires  not  less  than  90  lb.  per  sq.  in.  at  the 
curb,  where  the  length  of  hose  is  not  to  be  more  than  300  ft. 
Greater  pressures  are  required  for  longer  lengths  of  hose.  How- 
ever, medium  pressures  of  45  to  70  lb.  per  sq.  in.  are  permissible 
and  quite  useful  for  moderate  streams  with  short  hose  lengths; 
for  inside  work  in  buildings  of  three  or  four  stories;  also  for 
sprinkler  systems  in  buildings  of  small  to  medium  height. 

12 


178  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Fire  service  pressures  of  100  lb.  per  sq.  in.  and  over  cause  leaks 
in  plumbing  and  increased  waste ;  water  pumped  at  high  pressures 
contains  air  bubbles  as  drawn  from  the  faucet,  making  water 
uninviting  for  drinking.  Few  cities  in  the  United  States  carrying 
fire  and  domestic  supply  in  the  same  pipes  have  hydrant  pressure 
of  100  lb. 

Standard  Fire  Streams. — A  stream  flowing  250  gal.  per  minute, 
through  a  smooth  nozzle  1}?6  in.  in  diameter,  with  a  pressure  at 
the  base  of  the  tip  of  45  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  constitutes  a  standard 
fire  stream.  Such  a  stream  is  effective  to  a  height  of  70  ft.  above 
the  ground  with  a  horizontal  carry  not  exceeding  63  ft.  When 
fed  through  the  best  quality  of  2}^  in.  rubber-lined  hose,  the 
hydrant  pressure  required  to  throw  such  a  stream,  taken  while 
the  stream  is  running,  is  as  follows : 

Feet  of  Hose 50     100    200    400    600 

Pounds  per  sq.  in 56      63       77     106     135 

Hydrants. — Hydrants  are  attached  to  pipes  in  the  distribution 
system  to  allow  water  to  be  drawn  for  fire  purposes.  They  are 
of  two  general  types;  the  post  hydrant,  in  which  the  barrel  of 
the  hydrant  extends  2  or  3  ft.  above  the  ground  surface;  and  the 
flush  hydrant,  in  which  the  barrel  and  nozzle  are  covered  by  a 
cast  iron  box,  flush  with  the  surface.  The  former  is  more  com- 
monly used  and  as  it  is  much  more  readily  found  and  more  con- 
veniently operated,  it  is  to  be  preferred. 

The  branch  supplying  the  hydrant  should  be  of  a  size  cor- 
responding to  the  number  of  streams  to  be  carried.  For  one 
fire  stream,  the  branch  may  be  4-in.,  for  two  streams,  6-in.,  etc. 
In  general,  valves  should  be  placed  on  all  hydrant  branches 
where  the  main  is  10  in.  in  diameter  or  larger.  The  barrel  or 
standpipe  of  the  hydrant  should  have  an  area  about  20  to  40 
per  cent,  greater  than  the  area  of  all  its  nozzles. 

The  committee  of  the  American  Water  Works  Association 
recommends  that  in  thickly  built-up  mercantile  and  manufactur- 
ing sections,  hydrants  should  be  spaced  about  200  ft.  apart  and 
not  more  than  500  to  600  ft.  apart  as  the  maximum  anywhere. 

In  fixing  the  exact  location  of  the  hydrant  and  the  side  of  the 
street  on  which  each  should  be  placed,  a  detailed  examination 
should  be  made  and  the  location  determined  with  reference  to 
important  buildings  and  convenience  of  access  in  case  of  confla- 
gration.    The  most  convenient  location  for  hydrants  is  generally 


WATER  SUPPLY 


179 


at  the  street  intersections,  as  they  are  then  readily  accessible 
from  four  directions.  General  practice  appears  to  be  to  place 
the  hydrant  5  to  10  ft.  inside  the  range  of  the  property  line  about 
1  ft.  back  of  the  curb,  as  shown  in  Fig.  27  herewith. 

Design  of  Pipe  System. — Minimum  Sizes. — The  National 
Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  specifies  that  six-inch  pipe  is  to  be 
considered  the  minimum  size  satisfactory  for  hydrant  supply 
in  residential  districts,  to  be  closely  gridironed  with  6-in.  cross- 
connecting  mains  at  intervals  of  not  exceeding  600  ft.;  but  where 
initial  pressures  are  high,  a  satisfactory  gridiron  system  may  be 
obtained  by  a  liberal  per  cent,  of  larger  mains  cross-connecting 
the  G-in.  at  greater  intervals.     In  new  construction,  8-in.  should 


3 


Valve  when  connected 
with  main  10  "or  larger 


Fig.  27. — Standard  firo  hydrant  connection. 


be  used,  where  dead  ends  and  poor  gridironing  are  likely  to  exist 
for  some  time.  In  high  value  districts,  the  minimum  size  should 
be  8-in.,  with  suitable  cross-connecting  mains;  12-in.  and  larger 
mains  to  be  used  on  the  principal  streets  and  for  all  long  lines 
not  cross-connected  at  frequent  intervals. 

In  general,  in  small  housing  developments,  4-in.  cast  iron  pipe 
may  be  used  for  short  lengths  not  requiring  hydrants  directly 
attached,  and  especially  where  well  connected  into  the  rest  of 
the  system  at  both  ends.  Galvanized  iron  pipe,  of  2-in.  and 
upward  to  3)^-in.,  may  be  used  occasionally  in  streets  for  house 
supply  only,  where  hydrant  service  is  not  imperative,  where 
population  is  sparse,  or  where  the  cost  must  be  kept  to  a  mini- 
mum.    A  typical  piping  system  is  shown  in  Fig.  28. 


180 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


Fig.  28.— Plan  of  water  distribution  system  installed  in  the  Loveland  Farms 
housing  development. 


WATER  SUPPLY 


181 


General  Design. — While  no  absolute  rule  will  apply  in  all  eases 
for  the  design  of  the  distribution  system  pipe  sizes,  the  following 
data  used  by  the  Division  of  Passenger  Transportation  and 
Housing,  United  States  Shipping  Board,  as  a  guide  to  pipe  sizes 
may  be  helpful. 

Table  27. — Population  that  can  be  Supplied  by  Pipes  of    Various 

Sizfs — Based  on  an  Average  Use  of  100  Gallons  per  Capita   Daily, 

with  Average  Amount  of  Fire  Protection 


Diameter 
in  inches 

Sectional 

area, 

sq.  in. 

Flat  slopes 

long  lines, 

V  =  2  ft.-sec. 

Average 
conditions, 
V  =  3  ft.-sec. 

'Steep  slopes 
short  lines, 
7  =  4  ft.-sec. 

4 

13 

12 

27 

48 

6 

28 

61 

132 

226 

8 

50 

182 

392 

666 

10 

79 

425 

900 

1,500 

12 

113 

835 

1,720  ' 

2,850 

16 

201 

2,320 

4,620 

7,400 

20 

314 

4,940 

9,520 

14,900 

24 

452 

8,900 

16,700 

25,500 

Length  of  Mains. — Little  can  be  gained  from  a  study  of  the 
length  of  mains  per  consumer,  as  much  depends  on  the  shape 
and  size  of  the  town.  However,  it  will  be  of  interest  that  in 
developments  of  the  United  States  Housing  Corporation  the 
average  length  was  0.75  ft.  per  front  foot  of  lot,  or  1.50  ft.  per  lin- 
ear foot  of  street. 

Depth  and  Location. — The  depths  to  which  mains  must  be 
laid  to  prevent  freezing  is  dependent  upon  several  factors,  namely, 
the  temperature,  the  character  of  cover  and  the  size  of  main  and 
velocity  of  flow.  The  report  of  the  Committee  on  Depth  of  Water 
Pipe  of  the  New  England  Water  Works  Association1  shows, 
as  a  result  of  a  questionnaire  sent  to  90  communities  sup- 
plied by  water  works,  that,  in  general,  pipes  are  laid  from  3  to  10 
ft.  deep,  according  to  the  latitude,  and  that  freezing  occurs  mainly 
on  dead  ends  and  at  night  when  the  velocity  is  low.  All  but 
three  cases  of  freezing  were  reported  on  mains  smaller  than  10 
in.  in  diameter,  and  in  all  cases  the  ground  was  frozen  below  the 
axis  of  the  pipe.  In  general,  freezing  extends  1  ft.  deeper  in 
streets  than  in  fields;  also,  in  streets,  frost  will  reach  about  1}-% 
ft.  deeper  in  gravel  than  in  clay. 

1  Jl.  N.E.W.W.  Assoc,  Vol.  23-24,  p.  435. 


182 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


A  summary  of  the  results  of  the  work  of  the  committee  is 
shown  in  Figs.  29  and  30,  giving  the  relation  between  latitude 
and  the  mean  temperature  of  the  coldest  month  and  the  relation 


Fig.  29. — Map  indicating  the  mean  temperatare  of  the  coldest  month  of  an 
„  average  year. 

between  the  mean  temperature  and  practice  in  laying  mains. 
The  median  line  represents  general  practice  only,  and  as  little 


10  15  20  IS  30  35 

Mean  Temperature,  Degrees -Coldest  Month 


4-0 


45 


Fiq.  30. — Relation  between  required  depth  of  water  pipes  and  mean  tempera- 
ture of  coldest  month  in  average  year. 

or  no  trouble  at  these  depths  has  been  experienced  from  frost,  it 
is  probable  that  the  data  may  be  used  as  a  "safe  guide. 

Water  pipes  are  usually  located  in  the  streets  at  a  uniform 


WATER  SUPPLY 


183 


distance  from  the  curb  or  property  line,  although  in  some  cases 
considerable  economy  may  be  effected  by  running  the  pipe  lines 
through  easements  in  the  rear  of  lots. 

Valves. — Valves  should  be  introduced  in  the  system  at  fre- 
quent intervals,  so  that  comparatively  small  sections  can  be 
shut  off  for  purposes  of  repairs,  connections,  etc.  As  a  general 
rule,  whenever  a  small  pipe  branches  from  a  large  one,  the  former 
should.be  provided  with  a  valve.  At  intersections  of  large 
pipes,  a  valve  in  each  branch  is  usually  desirable. 

Valves  should  be  located  systematically.  They  are  usually 
placed  in  range,  either  with  the  property  line  or  the  curb  line, 
but  sometimes  they  are  placed  in  the  cross  walks. 

The  United  States  Shipping  Board,  in  its  housing  develop- 
ments, recommended  a  valve  spacing  such  that  only  three  blocks 
of  pipe  are  thrown  out  of  service  at  one  time,  in  case  of  a  break  or 
need  for  repairs. 

Specials.— The  percentage  of  the  total  cost  of  a  distribution 
system  which  may  be  chargeable  to  specials  varies  considerably 
in  individual  cases,  but,  in  general,  lies  between  4  and  6  per  cent, 
of  the  total  cost.  In  supply  lines  the  number  of  specials  required; 
and  hence  the  percentage  of  the  total  cost,  is  less,  representing 
only  from  1  to  2  per  cent. 

House  Services. — The  connection  between  the  street  main  and 
the  consumer's  premises  is  made  by  means  of  a  service  pipe. 
Just  within  the  cellar  wall  of  the  consumer's  building  a  stop- 
and-waste  cock  is  provided.  Usually  the  municipality  or  water 
company  installs  a  curb  cock,  protected  by  a  suitable  box  under 
the  sidewalk  close  to  the  curb. 

The  practice  of  tapping  the  mains  to  receive  the  corporation 
cock  varies  in  different  localities.  The  small  mains  are  usually 
tapped  on  top,  while  the  larger  mains  are  tapped  on  the  side. 

Table  28. — Common  Practice  in  Tapping  Mains  in  Various  Localities 


Place  in  tapping 


Top  of  main . 
Side  of  main. 
45°  point. ... 

Various  parts 

Total... 


Per  cent,  of 
whole 


32.6 
45.3 
14.0 

8.1 

100.0 


184 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


Reports  from  86  communities  solicited  by  the  New  England 
Water  Works  Association1  show  the  preceding  practices. 

Unless  the  service  pipe  is  made  of  lead,  a  lead  goose  neck  about 
2  ft.  long  should  be  placed  between  the  corporation  cock  and  the 


y 

4  '4 

Sites  of  Service  Pipes 


Sites  of  Service  Pipes 


Fig.  31. — Size  of  water  house  services;  the  practice  of  cities  and  towns  as 
to  the  size  of  service  is  shown  diagrammatically  in  the  upper  illustration;  the 
lower  diagram  indicates  the  extent  of  the  use  of  the  various  sizes  in  terms  of  the 
total  number  of  services.    Note  :  Data  based  on  records  from  305  cities  and  towns. 

service  pipe  to  enable  the  latter  to  adapt  itself  to  any  settling 
that  may  occur. 

In  selecting  the  kind  of  service  pipe  to  be  used  in  any  particular 
case,  the  points  to  be  considered .  are :  (1)  the  chemical  action 
the  water  may  have  on  the  pipe;  (2)  the  cost  of  laying  and  main- 
taining the  pipe;  (3)  its  durability. 

There  are  few,  if  any,  places  where  it  is  advisable  to  use  un- 

'  Jl.  N.E.W.W.  Assoc,  Vol.  23,  p.  436. 


WATER  SUPPLY 


185 


coated  iron  or  steel  in  service  pipe  construction.  The  use  of 
galvanized  pipe  decreases  very  materially  in  most  cases  the 
troubles  experienced  from  the  use  of  plain  wrought  iron  or  steel. 

Lead  pipe  is  mechanically  an  almost  ideal  pipe  for  services 
on  account  of  its  pliability  and  the  ease  of  laying  in  places  where 
there  are  obstructions.  The  chief  objection  to  lead  is  the  chance 
of  lead  poisoning  which  in  certain  localities  with  certain  kinds 
of  water  is  extremely  serious. 

Cement  lined  pipes  are  the  most  satisfactory,  so  far  as  the 
action  of  the  water  is  concerned,  of  any  which  are  now  used  for 
services.  The  difficulties  which  arise  from  the  use  of  this 
material  are  solely  mechanical,  although  corrosion  will  take 
place  on  the  outside  of  the  pipe  unless  this  be  protected. 

General  practice  appears  to  favor  the  installation  of  ^-in. 
diameter  services,  as  is  shown  by  a  study  of  records  of  305  cities 

Table  29. x — Portion  of  House  Services  Laid  and  Paid  forbythe  Water 
Department  in  Various  Communities 


Number  of  places 

Place  or  amount  laid 

New  England 

Other  states 

Total 

Per  cent. 

None 

27 
94 

117 
0 
2 

240 

17 

24 

6 

6 

0 

53 

44 
118 

123 

6 

2 

293 

15.0 

Curb  or  property  line .  . 
To  cellar  wall 

40.2 
42.0 

Corporation  cock  only. 
Miscellaneous 

2.1 

0.7 

Total 

100.0 

Number 

of  places 

Place  or  amount  paid 

New  England 

Other  states 

Total 

Per  cent. 

None 

Curb  or  property  line .  . 

Corporation  cock  only. 

Corporation  and  curb 

cock 

41 

174 
8 

3 
15 

241 

38 
10 

4 

0 

2 

54 

78 

184 

12 

3 
17 

295 

26.8 

62.4 

4.0 

1.0 

Miscellaneous 

5.8 

Total       

100  0 

.11.  N.E.W.W.  Assoc.  Vol.  31,  p.  342. 


186  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

and  towns  on  Fig.  31.  herewith.  The  portion  of  the  house 
service  which  is  laid  and  paid  for  by  the  water  department  in 
various  communities  is  shown  in  Table  29  herewith. 

Some  economy  is  effected  by  laying  the  house  service  in  the 
same  trench  as  the  sewer  connection.  The  depth  below  the 
surface  is  usually  the  same  as  that  of  the  street  mains. 

CONTRACT  PLANS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

Contract  Plans. — The  contract  plans  should  consist  of  a 
general  plan  showing  the  location  of  the  system  in  its  entirety 
and  a  set  of  detail  plans  of  a  standard  scale,  each  covering  a 
portion  of  the  total  layout. 

The  general  plan  may  or  may  not  include  the  source  of  supply 
on  the  same  sheet,  but  should  give  a  comprehensive  view  of  the 
whole  distribution  system.  A  scale  of  from  200  to  400  ft.  per  in. 
is  well  suited  for  this  work. 

The  detail  plans  should  be  on  a  40  or  50  ft.  per  in.  scale,  giving 
the  approximate  location  and  size  of  all  mains  and  specials, 
together  with  a  tabulation  on  each  sheet  of  all  specials  to  be  used. 
The  exact  location  of  the  mains  may  or  may  not  be  shown  on  the 
detail  plans. 

In  addition,  the  contract  plans  should  contain  drawings  of 
typical  sections  of  house  services  and  hydrants,  showing  the 
location  of  corporation  cocks,  curb  boxes,  valves,  etc.,  in  their 
relation  to  sidewalks,  property  lines  and  street  mains. 

Specifications. — Pipe  and  Specials. — Specifications  for  pipe  and 
specials  have  been  adopted  by  the  New  England  Water  Works 
Association  and  the  American  Water  Works  Association  and 
foundries  are  prepared  to  furnish  pipe  as  specified.  These  are 
complete  and  the  result  of  careful  thought  and  coordination  of 
all  interests.  However,  the  specifications  should  include  sections 
on  Special  Markings,  Tests  and  Weighing,  and  such  special 
requirements  for  the  particular  shop  as  appear  necessary  to 
prescribe. 

Pipe  Laying. — Sections  covering  the  following  items  should 
be  included  in  the  specifications  under  this  head:  Care  in 
Handling,  Cleaning  and  Inspection,  Laying,  Cutting,  Joints 
and  Caulking,  Joint  Materials,  Wall  Pipes,  Field  Testing,  Allow- 
able Leakage,  Painting  and  Correction  of  Defects. 

Under  this  head  may  also  be  included  the  minimum  cover  over 
pipes. 


WATER  SUPPLY  187 

Miscellaneous. — Under  this  head  may  be  included  specifica- 
tions for  Excavation  and  Backfilling,  Hydrants,  Valves,  etc., 
Work  to  be  Included,  Measurement  and  Compensation;  the 
latter  should  be  carefully  detailed  and  made  explicit. 

FINANCIAL 

General  Considerations. — The  cost  of  supplying  water  to  the 
consumer  depends  upon  so  many  factors  which  in  turn  are  so 
variable,  that  data  on  the  total  cost  of  supplying  water  would  be 
of  little  value.  It  is  the  intention  here  to  point  out  only  the 
various  items  of  revenue  and  expense  which  constitute  the 
financial  end  of  water  works  management,  together  with  such 
information  on  the  cost  of  the  various  factors  as  may  be  applicable 
to  industrial  housing  developments.  Such  information,  even 
though  of  very  general  application,  will  yet  serve  as  a  guide 
in  estimating  in  a  preliminary  way  the  cost  of  a  water  supply. 

Yearly  Expenses. — The  yearly  charges  and  expenses  to  be  met 
will  include  some  or  all  of  the  following  items: 

1.  Interest  on  bonded  debt  incurred  for  construction. 

2.  Yearly  payment  into  a  sinking  fund  for  liquidating  the  bonded 
debt, 

3.  Yearly  payment  into  a  depreciation  fund,  to  provide  for  the 
renewal  of  various  parts  of  the  work  when  worn  out  or  otherwise  rendered 
valueless. 

4.  Yearly  operating  and  maintenance  expenses. 

5.  Yearly  cost  of  extensions  and  improvements. 
G.  Profit,  or  income  for  surplus. 

Items  (1),(2)  and  (4)  must  evidently  be  met  year  by  year  by 
the  annual  income  and  not  by  borrowing,  if  the  department  is  to 
remain  solvent.  Some  cpiestions  may  arise  as  to  what  items  are 
chargeable  against  maintenance,  but  in  general  it  is  better  to 
include  under  that  head  only  the  regular  up-keep  and  the  cost 
of  ordinary  repairs. 

To  provide  for  both  items  (2)  and  (3)  simultaneously  is  usually 
considered  too  liberal  toward  the  future  generations,  but  occa- 
sionally may  be  adopted  in  part.  In  municipal  practice,  the 
sinking  fund  usually  receives  the  only  consideration.  If  such 
is  not  provided,  then  a  depreciation  fund  is  necessary.  This 
should  be  sufficient  to  furnish  funds  for  the  renewal  or  replace- 
ment of  worn  out  and  discarded  parts. 


188  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

The  cost  of  extensions  (5)  may  properly  be  met  by  issuing 
bonds  or  new  securities,  and  at  the.  same  time  providing  a  corre- 
sponding increase  in  the  sinking  or  the  depreciation  fund.  Such 
expenses  are,  however,  frequently  paid  in  part  from  the  annual 
receipts  or  by  general  or  special  taxation  in  the  case  of  municipal 
works. 

Sources  of  Revenue. — The  sources  of  revenue  are  the  water 
rates  and  the  funds  received  by  general  taxation,  if  any,  for 
building  portions  of  the  system.  The  former  are  paid  by  con- 
sumers of  water;  the  latter  are  paid  by  assessment  on  all  taxable 
property.  Ordinarily  from  25  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  total  fixed 
charge,  (the  part  of  the  service  chargeable  for  fire  protection), 
plus  the  cost  of  water  for  public  purposes,  should  be  met. by 
general  taxation;  and  the  remainder  of  the  revenue  obtained 
from  the  water  rates. 

The  question  of  rate  schedules  is  a  subject  demanding  a 
separate  treatise,  and  it  is  sufficient  to  say  here  only  that  such 
should  be  prepared  by  one  thoroughly  trained  in  the  subject, 
and  provide  among  other  things: 

First. — It  shall  produce  the  required  gross  income. 

Second. — It  shall  distribute  that  gross  income  equitably  among  the 
various  consumers. 

Third. — It  shall  tend  to  develop  the  business  and  should  not  drive 
away  large,  long  hour  consumers. 

Fourth. — It  shall  not  sell  water  to  any  consumer  at  a  cost  so  low  that 
it  is  necessary  to  collect  an  unfair  excess  from  other  consumers,  or  so 
low  that  it  is  necessary  to  collect  more  from  the  other  consumers  than 
would  be  the  cost  if  the  large  consumer  in  question  were  not  served  at  all. 

Fifth. — The  schedule  must  be  practical  and  workable. 


ft 


CHAPTER  VII 
SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE 

General  Considerations- — Separate  Sanitary  Sewers — 
Storm  Drainage  Systems — Combined  Sewers — Sewage 
Treatment  and  Disposal — Contract  Plans  and 
Specifications 

GENERAL  CONSIDERATIONS 

Sewerage  and  drainage  are  not  only  important  elements  in  first 
cost  and  upkeep  but  are  closely  related  to  the  health  and  well 
being  of  the  community.  When  such  are  not  properly  planned 
and  constructed  the  health  of  the  town,  or  that  of  adjoining 
communities,  may  be  menaced;  property  may  be  subjected  to 
damage,  and  excessive,  and  perhaps  otherwise  avoidable  mainte- 
nance or  upkeep  costs  incurred  directly  or  indirectly.  The  day 
has  gone  by  when  the  self-respecting  worker  will  permit  his  family 
to  live  in  a  community  with  privy  vaults  and  with  poorly  drained 
land  and  wet  cellars. 

Objects  to  be  Attained. — The  object  sought,  with  respect  to 
sewerage — is  the  prompt  and  effectual  collection  and  disposal 
of  domestic  sewage  and  trade  waste;  with  respect  to  drainage — 
is  the  collection  and  removal  of  rain  water  or  surface  drainage. 
There  may  also  be  the  problem  of  enclosing  small  water  courses, 
to  an  extent  necessary  to  make  possible  the  improvement  of  the 
property. 

The  first  subject,  sewerage,  is  essentially  one  of  health  and 
public  convenience,  and  is  of  prime  importance.  The  second, 
drainage,  is  related  chiefly  to  the  physical  requirements  of  mainte- 
nance and  upkeep  of  property,  and  is  provided  for  the  purpose 
of  preventing  erosion  of  lawns  and  pavements,  flooding  and 
drainage  to  public  and  private  property  and  to  conserve  public 
convenience. 

The  following  points  must  be  kept  ever  in  mind:  first  cost; 
maintenance  and  operation  costs,  both  direct  and  indirect; 
health  and  sanitation;  the  requirements  of  public  convenience 
and  satisfactory  and  adequate  service.     These  are  of  great  im- 

189 


1 90  IND  US  TRIAL  HO  USING 

portance  and  failure  to  make  proper  provision  may  react  to  the 
detriment  of  the  property,  to  the  dissatisfaction  of  owners  and 
tenants,  and  so  limit  or  restrict  the  most  profitable  development 
of  the  town  site.  It  may  not  be  out  of  place  here  to  point  out 
the  fact  that  the  rule-of-thumb  methods,  generally  prevailing 
a  generation  ago,  the  use  of  which  has  necessitated  costly  recon- 
struction and  replacement  of  sewerage  and  drainage  systems  in 
many  American  communities,  have  given  way  to  more  exact  and 
reliable  methods  of  planning  and  design.  With  the  prevailing 
high  costs,  and  scarcity  of  labor  and  materials,  the  necessity  for 
attention  to  economical  considerations  is  more  than  ever  urgently 
necessary. 

While  a  number  of  years  ago  it  was  possible  to  construct  a 
sewerage  system  which  would  render  satisfactory  and  adequate 
service  at  a  rental  charge  of  not  over  $6.00  per  annum  per  house 
(provided  treatment  costs  were  not  excessive),  it  is  doubtful 
at  the  present  time  if  a  satisfactory  system  can  be  installed  to  ren- 
der service  at  a  rental  charge  of  less  than  $12.00  per  year. 
Irrespective  of  whether  or  not  this  charge  falls  upon  the  owner, 
tenant  or  the  municipality,  it  is,  in  the  last  analysis,  an  item  of 
rental,  and  must  be  kept  to  the  minimum  consistent  with  proper 
standards  of  health  and  service. 

The  major  problems  to  be  considered  are  type  and  general 
arrangement  of  system,  the  method  of  disposal,  and  necessity 
for  treatment,  the  capacity,  general  location  and  plan,  and  finally 
the  detail  design.  At  the  outset,  inquiry  should  be  made  as  to 
the  state  and  municipal  requirements  with  regard  to  sewage  treat- 
ment and  disposal,  and  house  plumbing,  and  a  conclusion  reached 
as  to  the  nature  and  degree  of  treatment,  if  any,  which  may  be 
required,  and  local  conditions  to  be  met. 

Types  of  Systems. — Sewage  and  drainage  may  be  effected  by 
collection  and  removal  in  one  system  of  conduits,  in  which  case 
the  system  is  called  the  combined  system,  or  by  the  alternative 
plan,  the  separate  system,  wherein  the  domestic  sewage  is  carried 
in  a  separate  sanitary  sewerage  system,  and  the  storm  drainage 
in  an  additional  and  distinct  system  of  storm  drains. 

The  first  question  to  be  settled  is  that  of  type  of  system.  Nei- 
ther the  combined  nor  the  separate  system  have  inherent  ad- 
vantages which  render  either  preferable  in  all  cases.  The  one  to 
be  selected  is  that  which  will  render  the  required  service  at  the 
least  cost.     As  a  condition  precedent  to  making  a  decision  on  this 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE  191 

point,  the  method  of  sewage  disposal,  and  the  nature  and  degree 
of  treatment  required,  if  any,  must  be  studied  and  solved  in 
general  terms,  as  it  has  a  most  important  bearing  on  the  selection 
and  design  of  the  type  of  system.  The  economical  considerations 
concerned  are  susceptible  of  analytical  study,  dependent  for 
their  value  upon  the  reliability  of  the  underlying  data. 

As  the  rate  of  storm  discharge,  although  intermittent,  is 
much  greater  than  the  flow  of  sanitary  or  domestic  sewage,  the 
latter  being  ordinarily  and  approximately  but  one  per  cent,  of  the 
former,  the  separate  system  requires  the  laying  of  storm  drains 
of  approximately  the  same  size  as  that  required  in  the  combined 
set.  In  addition,  a  system  of  small  size  sewers,  is  required,  which 
ordinarily  range  from  8  to  12  inches  in  diameter,  the  greater 
part  of  the  system  being  composed  of  8-in.  pipe.  If  the  roof 
drainage  is  to  be  carried  directly  to  the  storm  sewer,  two  sets  of 
house  connections  are  necessary  for  the  separate  system,  one  to 
carry  the  domestic  sewage  and  the  other  the  roof  water.  It 
therefore  follows  that,  if  all  the  streets  are  to  be  sewered  and  all 
houses  connected  both  for  domestic  sewage  and  roof  water,  under 
most  conditions  the  cost  of  the  separate  system  would  exceed 
that  of  the  combined  system.  There  are,  however,  other  practi- 
cal and  economical  considerations  which  may  make  it  possible, 
in  some  cases,  to  install  the  separate  systems  at  less  cost  than 
the  combined.  These  are  chiefly  due  to  the  comparatively 
lesser  depth  at  which  the  storm  drains  may  be  laid,  if  separate, 
as  compared  to  those  required  for  the  larger  sized  combined 
pipes  when  placed  low  enough  to  receive  house  wastes. 

Many  of  the  older  communities  are  now  sewered  on  the  com- 
bined plan,  by  reason  of  the  fact  that  until  comparatively  recent 
years  the  necessity  of  separate  sewers,  due  to  treatment  required, 
had  not  arisen,  and  further,  little  attention  had  been  given  to 
the  economical  advantages  to  be  secured  in  many  cases  by  the 
adoption  of  the  separate  system.  Where  sewage  and  drainage 
may  be  effected  by  the  extension  of,  or  by  connection  with  an 
existing  system  of  combined  sewers,  it  will  generally  be  found 
advisable  to  install  the  combined  system,  unless  the  develop- 
ment of  state  or  local  sanitary  policies  may  alter  the  conditions 
and  requirements.  It  may,  however,  for  economical  reasons  be 
found  desirable  to  install  the  separate  system  in  developing 
new  areas,  and  make  connection  with  the  existing  combined 
system,  for  the  purpose  of  securing  an  outlet. 


192  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

If  sewage  treatment  works,  or  long  and  expensive  outfall  con- 
struction is  found  necessary,  either  the  separate  system  is  gen- 
erally most  economical,  or  the  quantity  of  flow  to  be  handled 
must  be  reduced  by  diversion  of  the  surplus  discharge  during 
heavy  rain  by  means  of  overflows  into  nearby  water  courses. 
If  this  latter  procedure  is  permissible,  the  combined  system,  other 
conditions  being  favorable,  may  be  installed;  otherwise  the  sepa- 
rate system  is  clearly  indicated.  Where  overflows  are  permissible, 
collection  may  be  made  in  the  combined  system  and  the  excess 
storm  flow  discharged  at  one  or  more  points  before  the  outfall 
or  the  treatment  works  are  reached.  Or,  an  alternative  plan 
may  be  followed,  wherein  the  dry  weather  flow,  composed  almost 
entirely  of  house  sewage,  is  diverted  into  so-called  interceptors. 
In  some  cases,  and  to  an  extent  determined  generally  by  the  sani- 
tary regulation  of  the  state,  two  or  three  times  the  dry  weather 
flow  may  be  carried  in  the  interceptor,  in  order  to  take  care  of 
the  first  wash  of  the  streets.  This  will  result  in  the  development 
of  an  intercepting  system  which,  however,  is  more  often  resorted 
to  where  sewer  extensions  and  disposal  of  the  sewage  of  a  town 
already  sewered  on  the  combined  system,  is  under  contemplation. 

Having  determined  the  sewage  disposal  problem  and  where  the 
selection  of  the  type  of  sewerage  system  is  not  dictated  or  con- 
trolled by  the  local  sanitary  or  health  requirements,  the  con- 
clusion will  rest  upon  the  relative  estimates  of  the  first  costs  of 
construction,  and  of  maintenance  and  upkeep,  with  respect  to  the 
following  factors;  the  depth  of  trench,  and  the  character  and 
quantity  of  excavation ;  length  and  size  of  the  various  sewers  and 
drains;  extent  to  which  storm  drains  must  be  installed  if  the 
separate  system  is  used;  number  and  length  of  house  connections. 
Topography  and  conditions  of  soil  play  an  important  part  in 
these  studies  and  estimates. 

An  economic  advantage  in  favor  of  the  separate  system  will 
result  if  the  extent  of  the  storm  drainage  system  can  be  materially 
reduced.  The  conditions  permitting  and  the  manner  in  which 
this  may  be  done,  are  later  considered  in  the  section  bearing 
upon  the  design  of  storm  drainage  systems.  The  storm  drains 
of  a  separate  system  may  be  designed  for  a  somewhat  less  capa- 
city than  required  at  corresponding  places  in  the  combined  sys- 
tem. This  is  being  made  possible  by  the  elimination  of  the  danger 
of  backing  up  through  house  connections  during  excessive  rains, 
and  the  unsanitary  effects  of  flooding.     Where  the  area  to  be 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE  193 

sewered  is  low-lying  and  flat,  better  results  can  generally  be 
obtained  by  installing  separate  sanitary  sewers.  Self-cleansing 
velocities  generally  can  be  obtained  at  less  cost,  and  with  less 
pumping,  on  account  of  the  better  flow  conditions  which  may  be 
obtained  with  the  smaller  or  flatter  gradients;  hence  excessive 
maintenance  cost  and  the  nuisance  of  clogged  sewers  is  avoided. 

SEPARATE  SANITARY  SEWERS 

The  quantity  of  sewage  to  be  provided  for  in  the  sewerage  sys- 
tem and  treatment  works  must  be  ascertained  in  order  to  fix  their 
capacity.  This  involves  a  determination  of  the  average  daily 
maximum  and  minimum  rates  of  discharge.  The  sources  from 
which  the  flow  is  contributed  are: — House  or  domestic  sewage, 
emanating  from  the  water  closets,  wash-stands  and  cellar  sumps, 
carrying  the  discharge  from  dwellings  and  places  of  business; 
trade  wastes,  which  include  waste  products  and  waste  water 
used  in  processes  of  manufacture;  leakage  or  infiltration  into 
the  sewers.  With  respect  to  the  different  districts  contributing 
sewage  the  areas  may  be  classified  as  residential,  commercial,  and 
manufacturing  or  industrial;  each  with  its  peculiar  features  and 
characteristics  as  to  quantity  and  quality  of  sewage,  and  fluctua- 
tion in  rate  of  discharge. 

Quantity  of  Domestic  Sewage. — The  average  daily  quantity  of 
domestic  sewage  contributed  bears  a  close  relationship  to  the 
use  of  water,  is  proportional  to  the  population  and  is  the 
product  of  the  population  and  the  per  capita  contribution. 

Where  an  isolated  development  of  known  extent  is  under 
consideration,  the  number  of  dwellings  being  known,  the  popula- 
tion to  be  provided  for  may  be  ascertained  by  allowing  an  average 
of  five  persons  per  family,  making  suitable  allowance  for  boarding 
houses,  hotels  and  any  public  use  of  water.  More  thorough 
studies  will  be  required,  where  an  existing  population  is  to  be 
taken  care  of,  or  where  there  are  undeveloped  adjoining  areas 
for  which  provision  is  to  be  made  for  future  development. 
Under  such  circumstances  the  probable  future  growth  of  the 
community,  as  affected  by  local  conditions  and  the  expected 
growth  of  industry,  and  other  factors,  must  be  considered. 

While  it  is  desirable  to  ascertain  the  probable  future  popula- 
tion, it  is  not  necessarily  desirable  and  economical  to  make  too 
great  a  provision  for  unknown  conditions  of  the  future  which 


194  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

may,  or  may  not,  eventuate.  It  may  be  more  economical  to 
provide  additional  and  duplicate  construction  when  the  necessity 
arises.  Street  sewers,  or  laterals,  and  the  smaller  mains  for 
built-up  territory  should  be  designed  for  ultimate  conditions, 
regardless  of  the  extent  of  the  immediate  building  program.  In 
the  absence  of  more  specific  data  an  allowance  of  at  least  45 
persons  per  acre  should  be  made  for  residential  districts. 

The  average  daily  use  of  water  not  only  varies  largely  in  dif- 
ferent cities  but  also  in  different  parts  of  the  same  city  or  com- 
munity. It  is  determined  and  affected  by  local  customs  and 
habits,  and  varies  with  the  type  or  character  of  the  district, 
reflecting  in  this  manner  the  standard  of  living  of  the  residents, 
and  restrictions  in  the  use  of  water.  There  is  also  a  tendency 
for  the  use  of  water  to  increase  with  the  age  of  the  city.  As  the 
sewers  must  be  designed  to  carry  the  maximum  average  daily 
flow  at  its  maximum  rate,  we  are  concerned  with  this  maximum 
rather  than  the  yearly  average,  daily  flow. 

The  average  daily  water  supply  in  residential  districts  will 
range  from  25  to  160  gallons  per  capita  per  day,  with  a  general 
average  of  100  gallons.  In  deducing  the  average  daily  sewage 
flow  from  water  supply  data  an  allowance  must  be  made  for 
losses  and  uses  not  reaching  the  sewers;  and  additions  made 
for  contributions  from  plants  having  private  sources  of  water 
supply,  and  for  leakage  into  the  system. 

Flow  from  Commercial  and  Industrial  Districts. — The  quan- 
tity of  sewage  to  be  contributed  by  stores  and  factories  must 
receive  special  attention.  The  flow  from  small  business  or 
industrial  sections  can  be  assumed  to  be  absorbed  in  the  general 
average,  insofar  as  the  capacity  of  the  mains  are  concerned;  but 
care  should  be  exercised  that  the  lateral,  or  street  sewers,  into 
which  such  contributions  are  directly  discharged,  are  of  ample 
size  to  carry  off  the  discharges  at  their  maximum  rates  and  deliver 
the  same  to  the  main  sewer.  The  discharge  from  local  groups  of 
store  buildings  incident  to  the  planning  of  any  industrial  town 
will  therefore  not  introduce  any  important  problems,  except 
as  to  the  required  depth  to  remove  sewage  from  deep  basements. 

When  the  commercial  district  is  extensive,  special  study  must 
be  made  of  the  probable  requirements.  The  estimated  flow  to  be 
provided  for  may  then  be  based  upon  the  number  of  employees, 
not  resident  in  the  district,  using  water  at  an  assumed  average 
rate.     This  may  vary  from  10  to  25  gallons  per  capita,  with 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE  195 

suitable  allowance  for  fluctuation  so  as  to  obtain  the  maximum 
rate,  to  which  must  be  added  the  flow  contributed  by  the  residents. 

The  discharge  of  domestic  sewage  and  trade  waste  from  indus- 
trial and  manufacturing  plants  varies  through  such  a  wide  range, 
depending  upon  the  size  of  the  plant  and  the  nature  of  the  industry, 
and  also  upon  the  extent  of  sanitary  facilities  provided,  that  a 
conclusion  as  to  the  quantity  can  be  reached  only  after  a  study  of 
the  particular  existing  conditions.  The  flow  of  domestic  sewage 
can  be  estimated  in  the  same  manner  as  indicated  for  industrial 
districts;  namely,  upon  the  number  of  the  employees  and  the 
average  daily  use  of  water,  with  special  consideration  as  to  the 
maximum  rate  of  discharge.  The  latter  is  influenced  greatly 
by  the  toilet  provisions  and  the  general  habits  of  the  employees. 

Water  is  extensively  used  in  many  of  the  various  processes  _ 
of  manufacture,  and  is  ordinarily  referred  to  as  trade  wastes. 
If  included  in  the  sewage  discharge  this  will  require  special  study 
as  to  quantity  and  rate  of  discharge.  It  is  some  times  consider- 
able and  an  estimate  can  be  made  only  after  a  full  investigation 
as  to  the  particular  processes  and  uses  of  water. 

Leakage  or  Infiltration. — Provision  should  be  made,  in  fixing 
the  capacity  of  the  sewers,  to  cover  leakage,  or  infiltration,  of 
ground  and  surface  water  into  the  system.  Such  leakage  is  due 
to  ingress  of  water  through  the  pipe  joints,  defects  in  house  con- 
nections, defective  construction  of  manholes  and  other  appurten- 
ances. It  may  be  aggravated  and  become  progressive  by  lack 
of  proper  maintenance,  and  by  improper  construction  which 
causes  subsequent  settlement. 

The  quantity  of  leakage  depends  on  the  height  of  ground  water, 
the  nature  of  the  soil,  the  features  of  design,  particularly  the 
materials  and  methods  used  in  making  the  joints,  and  the  care 
with  which  the  construction  is  carried  out.  Defective  house 
connections  as  installed,  and  later  extended,  replaced  or  repaired, 
are  frequent  sources  of  high  rates  of  ground  water  leakage.  In 
any  event,  there  will  be  a  normal  amount  of  leakage  which  it  is 
not  practicable  to  prevent,  and  it  is  wise  to  provide  a  sufficient 
factor  of  safety  to  cover  lapses  in  construction  beyond  the  control 
of  the  designer. 

As  leakage  is  a  factor  primarily  of  the  length  and  size  of  the 
pipes,  and  of  the  number  of  house  connections;  assuming  good 
design  and  construction,  the  rational  method  of  estimating  its 
quantity  is  to  estimate  the  same  on  the  basis  of  the  leakage  per 


196  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

inch  of  diameter  per  mile  of  system.  The  allowances  made,  to 
be  on  the  side  of  safety,  should  be  liberal.  The  following  are 
recommended : 

Under  favorable  soil  and  ground  water  conditions,  25,000 
gal.  per  mi.  of  sewer  for  pipe  not  over  12  in.  in  diameter;  and 
30,000  to  50,000  gal.  per  mi.  in  excess  of  12  in.  in  diameter. 
Under  unfavorable  soil  and  ground  water  conditions,  an  allow- 
ance from  50,000  to  100,000  gal.  per  mi.  should  be  made. 
The  latter  figure  will  be  used  where  ground  water,  in  quantity, 
has  a  tendency  to  follow  the  line  of  the  trench ;  also  in  low-lying, 
flat  areas  where  the  ground  water  level  is  above  the  top  of  the 
sewer.  The  above  figures  may  be  reduced  50  per  cent,  by  use  of 
bituminous  joints. 

For  simplicity  of  computation  it  is  convenient  to  convert  the 
leakage  allowance  in  gallons  per  mile  of  sewer,  to  gallons  per 
capita  per  day.  This  may  be  done  by  using  the  assumed  or 
ascertained  density  of  population  per  acre  and  the  lineal  feet  of 
sewer  per  acre.  This  latter  quantity  in  the  absence  of  specific 
data,  may  be  taken  to  range  from  175  to  340  lin.  ft.  per  acre, 
with  an  average  of  200  lineal  feet. 

Design  of  System. — Designs,  even  of  a  preliminary  character, 
should  be  based  upon  adequate  data,  and  upon  suitable  maps  and 
plans.  Reliable  topography  is  of  importance,  in  order  to  fix  the 
approximate  location,  grades,  and  elevation  of  the  main  lines. 
The  type  and  principal  features  of  the  system  should  be  deter- 
mined and  known  before  the  final  adoption  of  the  street  plan  of 
the  development  as  sewerage  and  drainage  are  factors  to  be 
considered  in  developing  such  a  layout.  It  is  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  make  any  changes  in  street  locations  after  early  ideas 
become  fixed;  accordingly  necessity  for  early  consideration  of 
sewerage  is  indicated. 

General  Considerations. — The  general  arrangement  of  the 
system  is,  therefore,  necessarily  fixed  within  the  developed  area 
by  the  adopted  street  location,  which  in  turn  is  affected  largely 
by  topography.  The  sewers  should  be  located  as  far  as  possible 
in  public  thoroughfares,  or  in  easements,  where  the  latter  are 
used  instead  of  alleys.  Outside  of  the  developed  area,  location 
will  frequently  be  made  on  private  rights  of  way,  or  easements. 
These  should  be  selected  with  reference  to  economy  of  con- 
struction, minimization  of  property  damage  and  future  street 
locations.     Definite     agreement     for     these     should     be     early 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE  197 

obtained,  covering  the  width,  location,  and  the  rights  of  the 
parlies  interested. 

One  of  the  objects  sought  in  design  is  the  elimination  of  large 
size  pipes  or  conduits,  as  far  as  possible.  To  some  extent  this 
means  the  utilization  of  the  smaller  sizes  to  the  limit  of  their 
capacity.  The  arrangement,  however,  will  be  limited  and 
affected  by  other  controlling  factors,  as  the  depth  of  cut  and 
available  grade.  Where  alternative  location  of  large  sewers  is 
possible,  determination  of  the  character  of  the  excavation  is 
frequently  desirable,  in  order  to  avoid  difficult  work  in  soft 
ground,  or  in  rock. 

Where  there  is  a  possibility  of  extending  an  existing  sewerage 
system  it  should  be  thoroughly  examined  as  to  location  of  mains, 
grade,  capacity  and  condition.  In  case  of  such  extensions  or 
where  the  housing  site  is  within  municipal  limits,  the  local 
practice  of  the  city  should  be  followed,  insofar  as  good  practice 
and  the  requirements  of  the  situation  will  permit. 

Rate  of  Flow  to  Provide. — The  quantity  to  be  provided  for  is 
the  maximum  rate  at  which  the  flow  will  be  discharged  through 
the  system  at  any  time.  It  consists  of  the  aggregate  of  the  flows 
from  the  various  sources  previously  discussed.  The  actual  rate 
of  flow  Varies  from  day  to  day  and  from  hour  to  hour,  and  is  also 
subject  to  seasonal  changes  and  to  progressive  increase  or  decrease. 
The  values  for  maximum  rates  used  by  various  engineers  vary 
widely;  it  is  a  matter  of  the  application  of  general  principles  to  the 
individual  case.  Care  must  therefore  be  used,  in  applying  any 
recommendation,  to  suit  local  circumstances  and  requirements. 

Laterals  and  street  sewers,  up  to  15  in.  in  diameter,  should  be 
designed  for  a  total  capacity,  running  full,  of  between  375  and 
550  gal.  per  capita  daily;  good  average  practice  for  residential 
sections,  indicates  about  500  gal.  per  capita.  In  ordinary  muni- 
cipal practice  somewhat  higher  values  are  used.  Sewers  in 
excess  of  15  in.  in  diameter  may  be  designed  for  somewhat  less 
capacity,  which  can  be  reduced  for  the  reason  that  the  fluctuation 
of  flow  decreases  with  the  increase  in  number  of  persons  contribut- 
ing. An  allowance  of  from  250  to  350  gal.  per  capita  in  the  design 
of  main  and  outfalls  is  good  practice;  300  gal.  per  capita  is  the 
general  practice  in  the  design  of  many  large  and  important  inter- 
ceptors and  long  sanitary  outfalls. 

An  analysis  of  the  ordinary  maximum  rate  for  a  lateral  system 
should  be  made  along  the  lines  indicated  in  Table  30. 


198  . 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 
Table  30. — -Estimated  Sewage  Flow 


From  various  source 


Average  daily  flow,  based  on  the  average  daily  use  of  water 

Leakage  or  infiltration,  estimated 

Manufacturing  purposes 

Commercial  purposes 

Total  sewage  daily  flow 

Add  50  per  cent,  for  fluctuation,  to  obtain  maximum  rate. 

Total  maximum  rate 


Gallons  per 
capita 
daily 


100.0 

50.0 

10.0 

5.0 


165.0 
82.5 

247.5 


In  computing  the  total  capacity  of  the  sewer  along  the  fore- 
going lines,  further  allowance  must  be  made  for  excessive  fluctua- 
tions and  contingencies,  both  present  and  future.  To  make  such 
provisions,  sewers  of  from  8  in.  to  15  in.  in  diameter  should  be 
proportioned  to  run  one-half,  and  the  larger  sizes  should  be 
designed  to  run  two-thirds  full.  When  the  design  of  long  inter- 
ceptors or  large  mains  is  under  consideration,  special  study  should 
be  given  to  the  question  of  fluctuation  and  maximum  rate.  It 
should  be  borne  in  mind  that,  in  designing  sewers  for  a  housing 
development,  a  somewhat  less  factor  of  safety  may  be  used  than 
in  ordinary  municipal  practice,  for  the  reason  that  some  of  the 
factors  which  are  ordinarily  a  matter  of  estimate  can  be  definitely 
ascertained  in  the  former  case. 

The  United  States  Housing  Corporation  issued  the  following 
instructions  and  suggestions:  design  to  be  based  upon  two 
families  every  20  ft.  of  street,  five  persons  per  family;  average 
daily  use  of  water  125  gal.  per  capita;  an  allowance  of  50  per 
cent,  for  daily  fluctuation  in  flow;  ground  water  leakage  25 
per  cent,  to  75  per  cent,  of  the  average  daily  flow.  This  gives 
totals  from  218.75  to  281.25  gal.  per  capita  daily  as  maximum 
safe  working  units.  This  was  stated  to  be  applicable  to  small 
districts  of  40  acres,  or  under,  in  area.  Further  suggestion  is 
made  that  sewers,  of  from  8  to  15  in.  in  diameter,  should  be 
proportioned  to  run  one-half  full;  so  that  the  total  maximum  rate 
provided  for  is  raised  from  437.5  to  562.5  gal.  per  capita  per  day. 

The  United  States  Shipping  Board,  Emergency  Fleet  Corpora- 
tion, Division  of  Passenger  Transportation  and  Housing,  in  its 
instructions  and  recommendations  for  the  design  of  sewers  and 
drainage  systems,  recommended  somewhat  lower  values.     The 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE  199 

average  daily  flow,  except  in  special  conditions  was  assumed  at 
75  gal.  per  capita.  The  following  rates  were  suggested  as  the 
basis  of  design  for  the  sizes  indicated. 

For  8-inch  sewer,  400  gallons  per  capita. 

For  10  and  12-inch  sewers,  350  gallons  per  capita. 

For  larger  sizes,  300  gallons  per  capita. 
All  sewers  flowing  full. 

Additional  allowance  for  ground  water,  from  25,000  gal.  per 
mi.  per  day  for  8  and  10-in.  sewers,  and  30,000  to  50,000  gal. 
per  mi.  per  day  for  the  larger  sizes,  was  further  recommended 
and  was  to  be  added  to  the  foregoing  where  cement  joints  were 
used.  With  bituminous  joints,  leakage  was  taken  as  one-half 
of  the  foregoing. 

Details  of  Computation.— The  well  known  Kutter  or  the  Willi- 
ams-Hazen  formulae  may  be  used  for  computations.  The  value 
of  the  coefficient  "n,"  should  be  taken  as  0.013  for  pipe  sewers 
and  0.015  for  brick  or  masonry  sewers;  and  "C"  should  be  taken 
as  100  for  terra  cotta  pipe  sewers  and  110  for  brick  or  masonry 
sewers.  Suitable  hydraulic  tables  and  diagrams  are  available, 
giving  on  inspection  the  velocity  and  discharge  corresponding 
to  the  various  slopes  and  sizes. 

The  data  and  results  of  the  design  should  be  arranged  in 
tabular  form,  giving  the  location  (usually  taken  at  a  point  where 
additional  flow  is  received  from  a  connection,  at  an  assumed 
point  of  concentration,  or  a  change  in  slope)  of  the  station  or 
reference  point;  the  elevation  of  flow  line;  quantity  to  provide 
for;  grade;  size;  velocity  and  capacity. 

Profiles  of  the  lines  should  be  prepared,  showing  the  elevation 
of  present  surface,  both  on  the  center  line  of  the  proposed  sewer 
and  on  the  side  lines  of  the  street  if  the  location  be  in  a  street. 
Where  the  depths  of  cellars  of  existing  or  proposed  houses  are 
likely  to  control  the  location  of  the  sewers,  their  elevation  and 
location  should  also  be  shown.  The  finished,  or  established  grade, 
of  the  street  should  likewise  be  shown  as  well  as  existing  surface 
and  subsurface  structures,  where  clearances  or  obstructions  are 
involved. 

Starting  at  the  upper  end  the  sizes  are  determined  progres- 
sively, investigation  for  change  of  size  being  made  at  all  points 
where  there  is  sufficient  increase  expected  in  the  quantity  of  flow. 
Such  points  will  occur  where  branch  sewers  connect  and  as  the 
contributions  from  house  connections  accrue. 


200  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Velocities  and  Grades. — The  grades  of  a  given  size  sewer  cannot 
be  reduced  below  a  certain  minimum  without  a  corresponding 
increase  in  the  probability,  or  necessity,  for  frequent  cleansing, 
together  with  liability  of  serious  clogging.  When  grades  are  not 
sufficient,  sewer  maintenance  in  opening  up  clogged  sewers  and  in 
flushing,  either  with  automatic  devices  or  street  hose,  will  be 
incurred,  thus  throwing  an  additional  or  needless  item  of  cost 
upon  operation. 

Where  possible  a  self-cleansing  velocity  of  not  less  than  3  ft- 
per  second,  with  sewers  running  full,  should  be  obtained  and 
adhered  to  as  a  minimum.  This  will  obviate  the  necessity  of 
flushing  or  cleaning.  When  pumping  or  excessive  cost  can  be 
avoided  by  so  doing  the  minimum  velocity  may  be  reduced  to 
23^  ft.  per  second;  or  even  to  2  ft.  per  second  in  certain  extreme 
cases,  which  will  probably  require  some  provision  for  flushing. 
The  relative  economy  and  desirability  of  velocities  of  less  than 
2  ft.  per  second  should  be  compared  with  those  of  pumping; 
the  factors  to  be  considered  being  the  cost  of  pumping,  compara- 
tive amounts  and  depths  of  trench  excavation,  which  are  reflected 
in  cost  of  construction,  and  the  cost  of  cleaning  and  flushing  in 
operation. 

While  some  existing  systems  with  velocities  of  1  ft.  per  second 
have  worked  out  without  any  large  amount  of  deposit,  such 
practice  should  not  be  followed  without  thorough  investigation 
and  consideration.  In  such  cases  flushing  the  dead  ends  and 
at  points  along  the  line  of  the  sewer  will  be  required. 

An  analytical  consideration  of  the  actual  minimum  velocity 
and  of  the  shape  of  the  sewer  section  is  involved  in  consideration 
of  the  minimum  flow  in  larger  sewers  and  outfalls.  The  mini- 
mum flow  may  be  taken  as  a  proportion  of  the  average  daily 
sewage  flow,  or  may  be  determined  by  analysis.  It  is  composed 
of  leakage  or  infiltration,  which  is  fairly  uniform  throughout 
the  day;  the  legitimate  night  use  of  water,  ranging  from  7%  to 
15  gal.  per  capita,  depending  upon  the  habits  of  the  residents; 
and  the  night  use  of  water  in  manufacturing  plants.  It  further 
includes  the  waste  of  water  through  defective  fixtures,  and  such 
flow  as  arises  from  the  habit  of  leaving  fixtures  open  in  freezing 
weather.  The  minimum  flow,  usually  occurring  at  night,  ranges 
as  a  rule,  from  25  to  50  gal.  per  capita  per  day.  Satisfactory  flow 
conditions  must  obtain  for  carrying  off  the  minimum  flow.  The 
velocity  half  full  is  equivalent  to  that  when  flowing  full  and  as 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE 


201 


the  depth  of  flow  decreases  below  one-half  full,  the  velocity 
likewise  decreases. 

While  the  conclusions  reached  as  to  minimum  discharge 
conditions  in  the  smaller  size  sewers  can  be  ordinarily  relied  upon, 
the  design  of  the  larger  sanitary  sewers,  and  of  important  out- 
falls and  interceptors  will  necessitate  more  thorough  study 
of  the  actual  rate  of  minimum  flow  and  the  design  of  a  special 
section,  if  sufficient  velocity  cannot  be  otherwise  obtained. 
Such  sections  are  so  designed  that  the  depth  of  flow  and  hence 
the  velocity  does  not  decrease  as  rapidly  with  a  given  quantity, 
as  in  the  case  of  a  circular  sewer.  Various  shapes  are  used,  of 
which  the  egg-shape,  elliptical,  and  parabolic,  with  modifications, 
are  common  examples.  Sewer  sections  of  this  kind  are  generally 
more  expensive  to  build,  require  more  head  room  and  greater 
depth  of  trench  and  consequently  take  up  more  of  the  available 
fall  than  circular  sewers;  their  offsetting  disadvantages  from  this 
standpoint  must  therefore  be  considered.  A  maximum  velocity 
of  over  6  ft.  per  second  is  undesirable  unless  the  normal  flow  is 
large,  as  otherwise  there  is  a  tendency  for  floating  matters  to 
be  left  behind. 

For  convelnent  reference  the  following  table  giving  minimum 
permissible  grades  for  various  size  terra  cotta  pipe  sewers,  is 
offered;  this  being  based  on  a  value  of  0.013  for  the  coefficient 
n  of  the  Kutter  formula. 


Table  31. 

— M 

nimum  Permissible  Grades  of  Sewers 

Diameter  of 
sewer  in 
inches 

Slope  in  feet  per  100  for 

veloeity  of  2  feet 

per  second 

running 

full 

Slope  in  feet  per  100  for 

velocity  of  3  feet 

per  second 

running 

full 

6 

0.05 

1.40 

8 

0    10 

0 .  90 

10 
12 

0  28 
I)  22 

0    IS 

15 

0.16 

0.34 

18 

0.12 

0.26 

20 

0.10 

0.22 

24 

0.08 

0.17 

27 

0 .  0GG 

0.143 

30 

0.058 

0.122 

Changes  in  grade  and  in  alignment  should  be  made  only  at 
manholes,  so  as  to  facilitate  inspection  and  cleaning.     Where 


202  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

the  street  alignment  is  curved,  the  deflection  should  be  made 
on  chords,  except  when  the  diameter  is  30  in.  or  more.  This 
practice  can  be  departed  from  only  when  the  grades  are  such  that 
self-cleansing  velocities  are  absolutely  assured.  Changes  in 
direction  of  the  smaller  sizes  may  easily  be  made  by  molding  the 
curves  in  the  base  of  the  manhole,  thus  avoiding  both  the  excava- 
tion of  circular  trench  and  making  the  deflection  with  pipe. 

Computation  should  be  made  using  the  hydraulic  grade  line 
rather  than  the  invert  of  the  sewer  as  a  basis.  Also,  to  insure 
the  realization  of  the  capacity  of  the  sewer  and  the  fulfillment  of 
hydraulic  conditions,  changes  in  size  should  be  made  by  keeping 
the  top  of  the  sewer  continuous  rather  than  so  maintaining  the 
invert  line. 

Minimum  Sizes. — The  minimum  size  of  the  sewer  should  not  be 
less  than  8  inches.  While  the  flow  for  considerable  distance  along 
the  street  can  be  carried  in  a  much  smaller  sewer  there  is  too 
much  liability  of  clogging  and  stopping,  nor  is  the  slight  saving 
in  cost  of  a  6-in.  sewer  compared  to  that  of  an  8-in.  sewer  sufficient 
to  warrant  the  adoption  of  the  smaller  size. 

Depth  and  Location. — The  depth  at  which  sewers  should  be 
laid  will  be  controlled  first  by  the  grade  line,  then  by  the  amount 
required  for  protection,  and  finally  by  that  elevation  required  to 
enable  house  connections  to  be  made.  The  depth  at  which  the 
house  connection  enters  the  street  sewer  will  depend  upon  its 
length  and  the  relative  difference  of  elevation  between  that  of 
the  surface  of  the  ground  at  the  house  and  the  finished  grade 
of  the  street,  and  further,  by  the  minimum  depth  at  which  the 
house  connection  leaves  the  house.  Where  no  cellar  fixtures 
are  provided,  or  where  cellars  are  entirely  omitted,  the  depth 
of  house  connections  will  be  fixed  by  the  requirements  for 
protection. 

The  required  depth  will  vary  with  the  latitude  and  climatic 
conditions,  but  it  is  good  practice  to  allow  a  minimum  of  2>^  ft. 
of  cover  over  the  pipe.  Frequently  a  cellar  sump  is  provided 
and  sometimes  laundry  tubs  or  other  fixtures,  in  which  case  the 
main  house  drain  is  laid  under  the  cellar  floor.  Cellar  sumps 
are  advantageous,  in  order  to  facilitate  cleaning  and  to  drain  wet 
cellars  generally  where  depth  of  the  sewer  system  is  a  matter  of 
economic  concern,  it  is  due  to  construction  in  low-lying,  flat 
ground  which  at  the  same  time  is  likely  to  cause  wet  cellars, 
either  by  leakage  through  cellar  walls  or  by  ingress  of  surface 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE  203 

water  through  openings.  Such  conditions  are  preventable,  and 
the  contingencies  of  construction  should  be  anticipated  even 
though  additional,  but  not  prohibitive  cost,  is  incurred. 

If  it  be  desirable  to  raise  the  height  of  the  sewerage  system, 
or  a  part  of  it,  in  order  to  save  pumping  or  construction  costs, 
the  main  house  drain  can  be  suspended  above  the  cellar  floor; 
in  which  case  cellar  sumps  or  fixtures  cannot  be  provided.  The 
possibility  of  wet  cellars  must  be  forestalled  by  subdrainage  of 
the  foundation.  The  expense  of  this  latter  method  must  be 
compared  then  with  the  costs  involved  in  lowering  the  sewer 
system.  With  a  6-ft.  cellar,  the  floor  of  which  is  4  feet  below 
the  adjoining  surface  of  the  ground,  and  a  20-ft.  setback,  a 
minimum  depth  of  7  ft.  at  invert  of  the  street  sewer  will  be 
required,  in  order  to  make  a  satisfactory  house  connection.  The 
foregoing  will  be  sufficient  as  a  minimum  for  residential  streets 
and  where  the  nature  of  the  ground  occupancy  is  definitely 
ascertained.  Where  the  character  of  abutting  buildings  is  a 
matter  of  future  determination,  or  where  stores  or  other  commer- 
cial buildings  are  planned  or  are  likely  to  be  built,  the  invert 
depth  should  be  increased  to  at  least  10  ft.  and  in  some  cases  to 
12  ft.,  so  as  not  to  restrict  the  use  of  the  land  for  the  most 
profitable  purposes. 

In  fixing  the  depth  and  location  of  mains,  attention  must  always 
be  given  to  the  question  of  future  extension  into  adjacent  tribu- 
tary areas.  Such  growth  may  be  rendered  difficult  and  costly  if 
the  sewerage  system,  as  planned,  will  not  permit  of  extension. 
Participation  of  municipal  authorities  and  of  adjoining  property 
owners  may  be  often  secured  to  cover  the  additional  cost 
incurred. 

In  sidehill  locations  with  houses  on  the  higher  side  of  the  street 
it  is  possible  to  lay  the  sanitary  sewers  at  comparatively  shallow 
depths,  while  those  on  the  lower  side  will  require  excessive  depths. 
It  thus  may  frequently  be  economical  to  sewer  the  houses  on  the 
lower  side  by  laying  a  duplicate  sewer  in  the  rear  of  the  houses  in 
an  easement  or  alley.  Advantage  may  be  taken  also  of  the  de- 
scending grade  of  a  street,  by  laying  the  house  connections  at  an 
angle  of  forty-five  degrees  and  running  down  street. 

Location  may  be  either  in  the  street,  in  which  case  the  center 
line  is  desirable,  as  this  permits  the  manhole  covers  to  be  laid 
level;  or  may  be  at  the  rear  in  an  alley  or  easement.  As  it  is 
desirable  to  remove  as  many  of  the  substructures  from  the  street 


204  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

as  possible,  it  generally  follows  that  the  sanitary  sewer  can  be 
located  in  the  rear  of  the  house,  not  only  with  less  disadvantage, 
but  often  with  positive  economy.  The  relative  economy  will 
be  determined  by  the  comparative  length  of  house  connections 
required  for  front  or  rear  connection.  There  is  a  relationship 
here  between  the  planning  of  the  house  and  that  of  the  sewerage 
system.  With  all  fixtures  in  the  rear  of  the  house,  unless  the 
lots  are  too  deep,  there  will  generally  be  a  shorter  run  to  an  alley 
or  easement  in  the  rear,  than  to  a  sewer  in  the  center  line  of  the 
street.  This  is  further  accentuated  in  cases  where  there  is  a  large 
set-back.  With  the  sanitary  sewer  located  in  the  center  line  of  a 
50-ft.  street,  a  20-ft.  set-back,  the  vertical  soil  pipe  located  in  the 
rear  or  28  ft.  from  the  front  of  the  house,  and  a  lot  depth  of  100 
ft.;  the  length  of  house  connections  will  be  73  ft.  when  the  sewer 
is  located  in  the  street  as  against  about  55  ft.  when  located  in  a 
rear  easement  or  alley.  In  this  case  there  would  be  a  further 
saving  effected  by  reduction  in  the  length  of  cast  iron  soil  pipe 
within  the  building. 

A  further  deviation  from  ordinary  practice,  to  be  considered 
where  the  street  width  warrants,  consists  in  laying  the  street 
laterals  in  duplicate,  one  under  each  sidewalk,  instead  of  a  single 
sewer  in  the  roadway.  This  removes  the  sewer  from  under  the 
roadway  pavement,  always  a  desirable  feature,  and  avoids  open- 
ing up  house  connection  trenches  in  the  roadway;  also  shortens 
house  connections,  and  permits  a  lessening  of  the  depth  of  the 
street  sewer,  on  account  of  the  shortening  of  the  house  connec- 
tions. The  length  of  street  sewer,  however,  will  be  doubled,  but 
with  street  widths  of  50  to  60  ft.,  the  relative  cost  will  be  about 
equal  and  the  question  will  be  settled  largely  as  a  construction 
problem.  With  wider  streets  the  comparative  costs  will  be 
more  pronounced  in  favor  of  the  duplicate  system.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  sewerage  system  installed  in  Buckman  Village, 
constructed  by  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation,  is  illustrative 
of  the  latter  kind  of  planning  (Fig.  32). 

Appurtenances. — Most  of  the  accompanying  details  of  a  sani- 
tary sewer  system  are  subjects  of  such  common  practice  that 
little  more  than  mere  mention  need  be  made  of  them.  It  may  be 
well,  however,  to  state  a  few  of  the  standard  practices. 

House  Connections. — These  may  be  laid  with  either  5-in. 
or  6-in.  terra  cotta  pipe,  the  size  depending  upon  the  municipal 
plumbing  requirements  and  local  practice.     The  use  of  smaller 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE 


205 


206 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


sizes  is  to  be  discouraged,  on  account  of  the  likelihood  of  clogging. 

Terra    cotta    pipe    is    generally- 
laid  from  the  sewer  connection 
to  within  5  ft.  of  the  building, 
from  which  point  cast  iron  pipe 
is   used.     Recommended    prac- 
J  tice  in  locating  house  connec- 
§  tions  is  shown  in  Figs.  33  and 
|  34. 

u  House  connections  should  be 
|  laid  on  a  grade  of  not  less  than 
■a  34  in-  Per  ft. >  and  it  is  not  de- 
*  sirable  to  have  the  grade  exceed 
■£  3^  inch  per  foot.  They  should 
S  be  laid  in  as  direct  line  and  grade 
B  as  possible,  and  with  the  same 
£  care  as  that  used  in  laying  the 
1  street  sewers. 

•§  The  connection  with  the  street 
I  sewer  is  made  with  a  "Y",  or 
"o  Wye  Branch,  laid  in  the  street 

0  sewer.     Where  there  is  separate 

1  ownership,  or  occupancy  of  a 
~  building,  each  dwelling  should 
©  have  its  individual  connection. 
'%  Joint  connections  lead  to  litiga- 
|tion  and  irresponsibility  for 
t  stoppages. 
|      Manholes.  —  Manholes     of 

jj  ample   size   and   proper   design 
§  should  be  provided  at  intervals 
<?  of  from  250  to  350  ft.,  for  sizes 
eo  of  sewer  up  to  30  in.  in  diameter; 
*?  for   the   larger  sizes   a  spacing 
£  from  300  to  500  ft.  may  be  used, 
depending  upon  the  size  of  the 
sewer.     It   is   good  practice  to 
provide  manholes  at  street  in- 
tersections, at  points  of  connec- 
tion with  other  sewers,  and  at 
intervening  points   as  required.     In   the   smaller  sizes  of  sewers 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE 


207 


"W7"k y A 


208  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

and  on  fiat  grades  it  will  generally  be  better  practice  to  provide  a 
manhole  at  both  the  P.C.  and  the  P.T.  of  horizontal  curves,  but 
where  the  sewer  is  of  sufficient  size  to  be  entered,  one  of  the 
manholes  may  be  omitted.  The  same  practice  may  be  followed 
where  the  grades  are  good  and  the  liability  of  stoppage  slight. 

The  manholes  may  be  constructed  of  either  brick  or  concrete, 
the  latter  being  better  in  wet  ground  and  all  should  be  provided 
with  manhole  steps  to  permit  of  access.  The  sewers  should  enter 
and  leave  the  manholes  at  or  near  the  manhole  invert.  Manhole 
castings  should  be  sufficiently  heavy  so  as  not  to  be  dislodged 
and  displaced  by  the  movement  of  heavy  traffic,  and  the  manhole 
frames  should  be  well  bedded  in  cement  mortar  to  prevent  the 
ingress  of  water  between  the  casting  and  the  structure.  Man- 
holes with  perforated  covers  should  not  be  located  in  depressions 
or  sumps  and  if  so  located  care  must  be  taken  to  provide  a  water- 
tight cover. 

Joints  and  Fillers. — The  cement  joint  is  used  for  ordinary  pur- 
poses. Where  ground  water  conditions  are  bad,  extra  deep  and 
wide  sockets  may  be  used  with  cement  filler  and  hemp  gasket; 
and  when  under  considerable  ground  water  head,  bituminous 
joints  are  desirable  to  keep  down  the  leakage. 

Flush  Tanks  and  Manholes. — When  flushing  is  required  by  the 
design,  either  flush  tanks,  flush  manholes,  or  facilities  for  flushing 
by  hose  should  be  provided.  Flush  tanks  operating  automatic- 
ally discharge  a  limited  quantity  of  water  and  are  adapted 
especially  to  take  care  of  dead  ends,  but  are  not  effective  where 
flat  grades  prevail  throughout  the  system.  In  such  case  addi- 
tional flush  tanks  of  ample  capacity  or  flushing  manholes  must 
be  provided  at  considerable  cost,  or  flushing  must  be  done  by 
other  means.  The  two  latter  means  require  a  maintenance  force 
to  operate. 

Flushing  manholes  are  of  special  construction,  provided  with 
a  gate  at  each  sewer  opening  into  the  manhole,  which  may  be 
quickly  removed.  They  are  operated  by  closing  the  gate  and 
partially  filling  the  manhole;  then  a  sudden  release  by  opening 
the  gate  will  discharge  a  large  amount  of  water  under  head. 
Flushing  by  hose  through  a  properly  designed  manhole  is  prob- 
ably as  economical  as  any  method  and  likely  to  be  quite  as  satis- 
factory. Typical  sections  of  a  number  of  the  appurtenances  and 
special  features  as  designed  by  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corpora- 
lion,  are  shown  on  Fig.  34. 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE  209 

Inverted  Siphons. — Inverted  siphons  are  used  to  carry  the 
sewer  line  under  water  courses,  or  other  obstructions,  which 
cannot  be  cleared  without  breaking  the  grade  of  the  sewer. 
A  velocity  of  not  less  than  3  ft.  per  second  should  be  maintained 
in  inverted  siphons  under  all  conditions  of  flow.  Owing  to  fluc- 
tuations in  rate  this  can  be  accomplished,  only,  by  providing 
one  or  more  additional  lines  of  pipe  of  various  sizes  placed  at 
different  elevations.  Maintenance  of  velocity  in  the  small  lines 
causes  considerable  loss  of  head  and  provision  must  be  made  for 
it.  The  head  required  for  the  smaller  lines  determines  the  total 
loss  of  head  in  the  siphon.  Clean-out  gate  chambers  provided 
with  proper  stop  plank,  or  gates,  for  manipulation  of  flow,  must 
be  provided  at  each  end  of  the  siphon.  With  proper  care  such 
siphons  can  be  designed  that  will  operate  through  many  years 
without  necessity  of  cleaning. 

Foundations. — In  firm  ground,  sewers  can  be  laid  directly  on 
the  excavated  subgrade,  the  bottom  of  the  trench  being  ex- 
cavated to  conform  to  the  shape  of  the  lower  half  of  the  pipe. 
In  soft  or  yielding  ground,  timber  platforms  or  cradles,  or  con- 
crete foundations  may  be  required  to  prevent  settlement.  In 
deep  cuts,  concrete  reinforcement  should  be  used,  extending  at 
least  6  in.  under  the  pipe  and  being  carried  up  well  on  the  side. 
Railroad  crossings  should  be  made  with  cast  iron  pipe  and  also 
surrounded  by  concrete.  In  quicksand  or  other  unstable  soils, 
subject  to  considerable  yielding,  timber  piles  may  be  required 
in  addition  to  timber  or  concrete  cradles  or  platforms.  Under 
many  conditions  in  soft  ground,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  lay  a 
foundation  consisting  of  a  thickness  of  6  in.  or  more  of  gravel 
or  broken  stone.  A  careful  examination  of  soil  conditions  and 
bearing  pressures  will  be  profitable. 

Pumping  Stations. — Where  pumpage  is  necessary  it  should  be 
reduced  to  an  absolute  minimum  by  the  elimination  of  all  un- 
necessary flow,  by  making  the  system  as  water-tight  as  possible, 
and  by  arranging  the  system  so  that  as  much  as  possible  of  the 
flow  can  be  carried  off  by  gravity.  This  results  in  an  arrangement 
called  the  zone  system,  in  which  sewage  from  the  higher  levels 
to  the  lowest  limit  which  can  be  drained  by  gravity  is  collected 
and  carried  off  in  high-level  sewers.  Sewage  from  the  lower 
levels  is  likewise  collected  in  a  distinct  system  and  pumped  either 
into  a  high-level  sewer  or  carried  by  separate  outfall  to  the  place 
of  disposal. 

14 


210  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Unless  there  are  exceptional  conditions,  or  when  a  very  large 
installation  is  under  consideration,  pumping  is  generally  done 
by  automatic  machinery,  using  electrically  operated  pumps, 
controlled  by  units  consisting  of  a  float  valve  and  rheostat. 

The  pumps  should  be  of  the  open  propeller  type.  In  fixing 
the  size  of  the  pump  to  be  installed  the  relative  costs  of  pumping 
and  investments  in  using  mains  of  larger  diameter  should  be  con- 
sidered. When  large  stations  are  under  consideration,  or  where 
electrical  current  is  not  available,  steam,  gasoline,  or  oil  driven 
units  may  be  used.  The  essential  features  of  such  an  installation 
include  a  receiving  chamber,  or  well,  permitting  intermittent 
action  of  the  pumps  at  an  economical  rate.  Pump  wells  should 
provide  for  at  least  15  minutes  maximum  flow.  Bar  screens, 
with  coarse  openings,  arranged  for  easy  cleaning,  must  further 
be  provided  in  order  to  prevent  clogging  of  the  pumps.  Units 
should  be  installed  in  duplicate  and  should  receive  daily 
inspection. 

STORM  DRAINAGE  SYSTEMS 

General  Considerations. — The  design  of  storm  drainage  sys- 
tems involves  considerations  of  general  arrangement,  capacity 
and  extent  of  installation.  The  latter  must  be  such  as  will 
preclude  damage  to  property  by  erosion  or  flooding,  prevent 
damage  to  pavements,  permit  the  development  of  property, 
and  add  to  and  conserve  public  convenience  to  a  reasonable  and 
necessary  extent.  The  extent  of  the  installation,  and  likewise 
the  cost,  will  therefore  vary  with  the  topographical  and  local 
requirements.  The  design  involves  consideration  of  the  rainfall 
rate  to  be  provided  for,  the  maximum  rate  at  which  such  rains 
will  run  off,  the  area  covered  by  the  system,  and  questions  of 
location,  depth  and  grade. 

Rainfall  and  Run-off. — The  quantity  of  rainfall  is  a  most 
important  factor.  It  is  necessary  to  ascertain  exact  information 
as  to  the  intensity  and  frequency  of  heavy  downpours  of  rain, 
referred  to  as  intense  or  excessive  rains.  For  this  purpose,  the 
rainfall  records  of  the  nearest  United  States  Weather  Bureau 
office  can  be  obtained,  from  which  may  be  plotted  the  rate  of 
each  excessive  storm,  in  terms  of  its  rate  in  inches  per  hour  for  each 
5  minutes  of  its  duration.  These  curves  show  variations,  clearly 
demonstrating  that  the  arbitrary  assumption  of  a  certain  rainfall 
rate  is  utterly  unwarranted. 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE 


211 


Rates  to  Provide  For. — Rainfall  diagrams  will  show  a  few 
abnormally  excessive  storms  occurring  at  infrequent  intervals. 
These  are  the  rates  determining  the  maximum  which  may  occur 
over  the  period  of  years  covered  by  the  records,  which  generally 
extend  back  as  far  as  1871.  As  to  whether  or  not  provision 
should  be  made  for  the  heaviest  rainfall  which  may  occur,  will 
depend,  entirely,  upon  the  local  conditions  and  circumstances. 

Unless  there  are  unusual  topographical  conditions  occasional 
and  limited  surcharging  of  the  storm  sewers  may  not  result 


■fi  5 


°  3 


/./ 


1°  ■ 

V 


4 


^ 
/»  x 


f-es 


SMinojS-- 


10  Minutes 


-20  Mirrufesj: 

I 

30Minuj;cs__ 

4q_Mrnufe5_ 
6  0  Mirwl— 


8  10  \Z 

frequency  -Years 


20 


Fig.  35. — Rainfall  frequency  curve;  shows  the  relation  between  the  frequency 
and  intensity  of  rainfall  for  storms  of  various  durations  for  the  Philadelphia 
district;  one  of  a  series  of  diagrams  prepared  by  the  Engineering  Division  of 
the  United  States  Housing  Corporation,  Mr.  John  W.  Alvord,  Chief  Engineer. 

in  great  damage.  This  is  particularly  true  where  the  overflow 
can  be  well  distributed  and  at  places  where  such  surcharging  will 
not  flood  cellars  or  seriously  damage  public  or  private  property, 
nor  unreasonably  interfere  with  public  transportation  and 
convenience.  Where  street  grades  are  good  and  the  excess  flow 
will  be  quickly  carried  off  into  water  courses  or  ditches  and  where 
other  favorable  conditions  exist,  it  will  be  good  engineering 
practice  and  economy  to  design  the  storm  drainage  system  with- 
out provision  for  the  heaviest  rains. 

After  careful  consideration  of  the  local  conditions,  it  may  be 
possible  to  reach  a  decision  to  anticipate  such  storms  which  only 


212  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

occur  at  least  once  a  year  on  the  average,  or  the  frequency  pro- 
vided for  may  be  once  in  two  years. 

Fig.  35,  reproduced  from  studies  made  by  the  United 
States  Housing  Corporation,  will  be  of  interest  in  this  connection. 

If  property,  likely  to  be  damaged,  is  in  business  districts,  it 
will  be  found  desirable  to  make  increased  provision,  so  as  to 
carry,  without  flooding,  storms  which  may  occur  at  intervals 
of  five  or  even  a  greater  number  of  years ;  or  it  may  be  necessary 
to  even  care  for  the  maximum  rate  anticipated. 

Run-off. — This  is  the  amount  of  the  rainfall  reaching  the 
drains,  and  is  considered  in  terms  of  the  maximum  rate  of  dis- 
charge. Maximum  run-off  is  expressed  as  a  coefficient  "C", 
in  terms  of  the  percentage  of  the  rainfall  rate;  and  is  affected 
by  the  time  of  concentration,  which  is  the  interval  of  time  that  it- 
takes  from  the  beginning  of  the  period  of  excessive  rainfall  to 
the  moment  when  the  maximum  discharge  is  obtained  in  the 
drain.  Time  of  concentration  and  the  conditions  affecting  it 
are  later  discussed. 

The  coefficient  of  run-off  "C",  depends  upon  a  number  of 
conditions,  among  which  are:  the  topography  and  prevailing 
slope,  including  the  slope  of  the  main  drain;  perviousness  of  the 
surface,  which  is  dependent  upon  the  character  of  the  soil, 
proportion  of  lawns,  sidewalks,  street  pavements,  buildings; 
the  condition  of  the  surface  of  the  ground  prior  to  the  beginning 
of  excessive  rainfall,  as  whether  the  ground  is  frozen,  or  saturated; 
and  the  duration  of  the  storm. 

An  average  coefficient  of  run-off  may  be  assumed  for  the  entire 
area  and  applied  uniformly.  When  greater  refinement  is  es- 
sential, the  coefficient  of  the  various  tributary  subareas  may  be 
ascertained  by  analysis.  In  general  terms,  and  except  in  very 
flat  or  very  rough  topography,  the  value  of  the  coefficient,  for 
residential  districts  will  range  from  0.30  to  0.55  or  0.60.  Under 
given  topographical  and  soil  conditions,  the  coefficient  increases 
with  the  degree  of  development  and  the  density  of  population, 
so  that  it  is  necessary  to  estimate  the  ultimate  or  future  condi- 
tions which  the  system  is  to  serve.  Too  much  reliance  cannot  be 
placed  upon  the  rate  of  discharge  observable  in  open  water 
courses;  for,  without  other  conditions  being  changed,  the  rate  of 
discharge  is  increased  by  the  installation  of  drains  due  to  the 
fact  that  the  time  of  concentration  is  shortened. 

Under  most  conditions  it  is  not  safe  to  assume  a  run-off  co- 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE 


213 


efficient  of  less  than  0.50,  without  careful  analysis  of  local  condi- 
tions. In  sandy  soils,  where  the  topography  is  flat  and  the 
density  of  population  not  over  45  per  acre  the  coefficient  may  be 
reduced  to  0.30  or  0.35.  In  business  districts  the  coefficient  will 
be  higher  and  will  range  from  0.80  to  0.90. 

An  analytical  study  of  the  coefficient  of  run-off  is  based  on 
the  impcrviousness  of  the  different  kinds  of  surfaces.  The  co- 
efficient likewise  increases  with  the  estimated  duration  of  storms, 
as  the  impervious  area  increases  owing  to  saturation.  The 
following  values  may  be  used,  on  the  basis  of  calling  the  co- 
efficient 100  for  areas  immediately  yielding  all  the  water  which 
falls  thereon. 


Table  32. — Run-off  from  Various  Classes  of  Surfaces 


Class  of  Surface 


Per  cent. 

Impervious 


Roofs 

Pavements — (n)  Hard  surface — sheet  asphalt,  grouted  block 

stone,  etc 

(b)  Macadam,  gravel,  hard  earth,  etc 

Lawns,  open  spaces,  etc 

Sidewalks — paved  surfaces 

planting  strips 

Parks,  cultivated  areas,  etc 


90-100 

80-90 
30-50 
20-30 
80-90 
40-50 
5-25 


The  determination  of  the  amount  of  each  class  of  surface  will 
give  an  average  coefficient  for  the  entire  area  considered. 

The  following  is  a  table  of  values  known  as  Friihling's  coeffi- 
cients arrived  at  in  studies  in  Boston,  Massachusetts. 

Table  33. 1 — Fruhling's  Values  of  Run-off  Coefficient 


Kind  of  Area 


Value  of  "C 


Densely  built  center  of  city 

Densely  built  residence  districts 

Residence  districts,  not  densely  built 

Parks  and  open  spaces 

Lawns,  gardens,  meadows,  cultivated  areas,  varying  with 

slope  and  character  of  soil 

For  wooded  areas 


0.7  to  0 . 9 
0.5  to  0.7 
0 .  25  to  0 . 5 
0.1    to  0.3 

0.05  to  0.25 
0.01  to  0.20 


'From  American  Sewerage  Practice:    Metcalf  and  Eddy. 


214  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Extent  of  System. — Reference  has  already  been  made  to  the 
opportunity  of  lessening  the  cost  by  restricting  the  extent  of  the 
storm  drainage  system.  It  remains  to  point  out  under  what 
conditions  this  can  be  safely  done.  There  are  two  methods 
which  can  be  used;  first,  where  local  conditions  permit,  the  main 
or  trunk  sewers  can  be  reduced  in  length,  or  perhaps  entirely 
eliminated;  second,  the  extent  of  the  small  street  sewers  or 
laterals  can  be  minimized  by  eliminating  the  upper  ends. 

Nearby  water  courses,  drainage  ditches  and  drainage  lines 
can  be  utilized  as  elements  in  the  drainage  system  where  the 
continuous  use  of  such  as  open  water  courses  is  not  objection- 
able. Sections  of  such  natural  water  courses  may  be  improved, 
where  it  is  desirable,  by  realignment  and  rectification  of  grades 
and  sections.  Open  water  courses  may  be  covered  in  congested 
districts  and  this  is  often  necessary  as  a  sanitary  measure.  When 
suitable  precautions  are  taken  there  may  be  no  reason  why  such 
water  courses  may  not  be  used  permanently,  or  for  a  considerable 
term  of  years,  thereby  deferring  the  first  cost  and  saving  the 
interest  charge  on  construction.  Where  this  can  be  accomplished 
the  storm  drainage  system  will  naturally  be  reduced  to  its 
simplest  units  of  street  laterals  of  smaller  sizes  of  pipe. 

Roof  Water. — The  extent  to  which  street  laterals  can  be  reduced 
or  eliminated  will  depend  greatly  upon  the  provisions  to  be  made 
for  carrying  roof  drainage  coming  from  the  houses.  When  the 
buildings  are  well  located,  lot  grading  developed  with  care,  and 
if  subfoundation  conditions  do  not  indicate  danger  of  wet  cellars, 
the  roof  leaders  may  discharge  on  drip  blocks  and  the  flow  carried 
over  the  lawn.  In  such  cases  it  will  naturally  flow  across  the 
sidewalk  and  thence  into  the  street  gutters.  If  this  is  objec- 
tionable, a  shallow  tile  drain  may  be  laid,  connecting  with  the 
roof  leaders  and  extending  across  the  lawn,  through  the  side- 
walk; thus  discharge  into  the  gutter  through  an  opening  in  the 
curb. 

Thus  an  elimination  of  the  house  and  cellar  drain  maybe 
worthy  of  consideration  from  an  economical  standpoint,  although 
this  practice  is  open  to  objection  for  certain  reasons.  In  some 
municipalities  the  connection  of  roof  leaders  to  the  storm  or 
combined  sewers  is  required  by  ordinances  or  statute.  There  is 
also  a  prejudice  against  the  practice  of  elimination  as  likely  to 
cause  wet  cellars,  and  to  make  the  sidewalk  impassable  in  winter 
owing  to  freezing  of  such  flow  from  the  house.     In  this  connec- 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE  215 

tion  it  must  bo  borne  in  mind  that  roof  leaders  themselves 
frequently  freeze  and  melting  snow  from  roofs  drips  on  the  ground 
surface,  and  furthermore,  there  is  always  likelihood  of  a  con- 
siderable proportion  of  the  roof  water  during  heavy  rains  not 
reaching  the  down  spouts. 

Numbers  of  wet  cellars  have  been  examined  where  the  cause 
was  ascribed  to  the  discharge  of  the  roof  leaders  to  the  ground 
directly  adjoining  the  house,  but  in  such  cases  the  trouble 
generally  has  been  found  elsewhere,  as  for  instance  in  lack  of 
proper  subdrainage  of  foundation  where  soil  conditions  were  bad, 
or  defective  cellar  wall  construction.  Whether  it  is  advisable 
to  effect  the  disposition  of  roof  drainage  in  the  manner  indicated 
is  largely  a  matter  of  judgment  and  preference,  as  to  whether 
additional  cost  shall  be  incurred  or  the  disadvantage  permitted. 
The  cost  of  connecting  up  the  roof  leaders  to  the  storm  sewer 
will  run  from  $25  to  $50  per  house,  depending  upon  the  roof 
design  and  arrangement  of  yards. 

Street  Water.— The  distance  which  water  can  be  carried  in 
gutters  before  reaching  the  first  catch  basin  or  storm  inlet  at 
the  head  of  a  street  lateral  depends  upon  the  grade,  the  type  of 
pavement,  the  gutter  cross-section  and  the  prevailing  rate  of 
excessive  storms.  Hard  surface  pavements,  such  as  sheet  as- 
phalt or  block  stone  are  not  subject  to  erosion,  and  under  such 
conditions  the  gutter  drainage  can  be  safely  carried  a  distance 
of  about  1000  ft.,  if  the  grades  permit,  and  provided  the  gutter 
capacity  is  sufficient.  Pavements  having  less  resisting  qualities, 
such  as  water-bound  macadam,  are  more  subject  to  erosion, 
and  in  such  cases  a  gutter  run  of  600  to  700  ft.  generally  should 
be  the  maximum  limit,  The  spacing  of  inlets  along  the  line  of 
the  drains  is  discussed  later. 

If  storm  water  house  connections  are  made,  either  the  street 
laterals  will  have  to  be  extended  so  as  to  take  in  the  furthermost 
house  on  the  street,  or  small  drains  may  be  laid  under  the  curb. 
This  latter  practice  should  be  considered  where  thorough  sub- 
drainage  of  the  roadway  pavement  is  essential.  In  such  case 
small  pipe,  4  or  6  in.  in  diameter,  may  be  laid  in  broken  stone. 

The  governmental  agencies  engaged  in  housing  during  the 
Great  War  endeavored  to  limit  the  extent  of  storm  drainage 
systems  to  between  one-third  and  one-half  the  length  of  the  sepa- 
rate sanitary  systems.  Upon  investigating  the  relative  lengths 
of  storm  drainage  and  sanitary  sewerage  systems  in  a  number  of 


216  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

these  developments,  it  has  been  found  that  for  the-  Emergency 
Fleet  Corporation  the  length  of  storm  drains  is  46  per  cent,  of  the 
length  of  sanitary  system,  while  in  the  United  States  Housing 
Corporation  the  similar  ratio  is  55  per  cent. 

Details  of  Design. — The  same  general  methods  are  employed 
in  designing  a  storm  drainage  system  as  have  been  recommended 
in  sanitary  sewer  design.  The  area  to  be  drained  is  laid  out  in 
subdrainage  areas,  each  served  by  a  main  lateral;  and  the  area, 
coefficient  of  run-off,  size,  capacity,  and  grade  of  the  main  laterals 
draining  each  district  determined.  The  size,  capacity  and  grade 
of  the  main  sewer  is  then  determined  starting  at  the  upper  end 
and  proceeding  progressively  to  the  outlet. 

The  factors  for  design  of  the  laterals,  and  mains,  should  be  held 
consistently  throughout  the  area,  so  that  the  various  sections  will 
carry  off  the  same  proportion  of  discharge.  For  instance,  there 
obviously  will  be  surcharging  and  flooding  in  the  main  if  the 
laterals  discharging  into  it  are  designed  to  carry  off  two  inches  of 
rainfall,  whereas  the  mains  are  designed  to  carry  but  one  inch. 

Discharge  Formula. — The  use  of  empirical  formulae  to  deter- 
mine the  quantity  of  discharge  and  hence  the  capacity  of  storm 
drains  is  obsolete  except  for  preliminary  computation.  In 
modern  practice  the  so-called  "Rational  Formula"  is  used,  which 
is  as  follows:  Q  =  ACL  In  this  "Q"  is  the  quantity  of  dis- 
charge in  cu.  ft.  per  second;  "A"  is  the  area  tributary  to  the 
storm  drain  at  the  point  under  consideration  and  is  expressed 
in  acres;  "C"  is  the  coefficient  of  run-off,  which  has  been  previ- 
ously discussed  and  which  is  expressed  as  a  decimal;  "I"  is  the 
rate  of  rainfall,  corresponding  to  the  time  of  concentration  and 
is  expressed  in  inches  per  hours. 

The  time  of  concentration,  is  made  up  of  the  initial  period,  or 
the  time  that  it  takes  the  water  from  the  furthermost  part  of  the 
area  to  reach  the  nearest  catch  basin  or  storm  inlet,  and  the  time 
of  flow  within  the  system.  The  initial  period  depends  upon  the 
slope,  character  of  surfaces  and  the  distance.  For  simplicity  of 
computation  it  is  ordinarily  assumed  from  5  to  7  minutes.  After 
reaching  the  gutters,  the  storm  water  flows  to  the  nearest  inlet, 
and  the  time  element  here  involved  can  be  computed  from  the 
kind  of  surface  and  slope.  After  entering  the  lateral,  the  time 
of  flow  to  the  point  under  consideration  can  be  easily  computed, 
on  the  basis  of  the  grade  and  size. 

Should  there  be  an  outlying  unsewered  area,  it  will  be  neces- 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE  217 

sary  to  estimate  the  contribution  from  this  source.  This  may 
be  done  by  one  of  the  empirical  formulae,  such  as  the  McMath  or 
Burki-Ziegler.  It  is  better  practice,  although  taking  more  time, 
to  develop  the  design  to  include  this  area,  so  that  if  later  de- 
velopment occurs  the  system  will  be  adequate  to  carry  off  the 
total  discharge. 

Velocities  and  Grades. — The  minimum  velocity  in  storm 
drains,  flowing  full  or  half  full,  should  not  be  less  than  3  ft,  per 
second,  otherwise  deposits  of  grit,  sand,  gravel  and  other  heavy 
materials  may  occur.  If  such  a  minimum  velocity  cannot  be  ob- 
tained without  undue  cost,  it  will  be  necessary  to  adopt  pre- 
cautions to  prevent  the  admission  of  heavier  materials  into  the 
system.  This  may  be  accomplished  somewhat  by  providing 
properly  designed  catch  basins. 

High  velocities  are  unobjectionable,  provided  the  grades  of  the 
drain  are  sufficient  to  carry  off  heavy  materials  brought  to  it, 
but  on  sharp  grades  suitable  precaution  should  be  taken  to 
prevent  erosion  or  tearing  out  of  the  invert.  The  abrasive 
resistance  of  terra  cotta  pipe  is  sufficient  to  withstand  conditions 
imposed  by  steep  grades.  Where  large  size  sewers  (in  excess  of 
3  ft.  in  diameter)  are  to  be  constructed,  it  is  usual  to  line  the 
invert  either  with  hard  vitrified  paving  or  sewer  brick  or  with 
stone  block — although  monolithic  concrete,  if  well  constructed, 
has  an  equally  high  resistance  to  abrasion. 

Computations  of  flow  should  be  based  upon  the  hydraulic 
grade    or    flow    line,    rather    than    on    the    invert    line. 

Minimum  Size. — The  minimum  size  of  storm  drains  should 
be  10  in.  in  diameter,  but  where  the  installation  is  extensive, 
it  may  be  desirable  to  increase  the  minimum  size  to  12  in.  Some 
municipalities  fix  a  diameter  of  15  in.  as  the  minimum  size. 

Depth  and  Location. — The  crown  of  storm  drains  should  be 
at  least  from  2  to  2y2  ft.  below  the  finished  surface;  so  as  to 
afford  protection.  The  drain,  however,  should  be  kept  as  close 
to  the  surface  as  possible,  keeping  in  mind  the  requirements  for 
house  connections,  junctions  with  other  sewers,  and  clearance 
with  other  substructures. 

Joints  and  Filler. — Cement  filled  joints  are  preferable,  since 
tight  construction  is  not  necessary,  and  frequently  not  desirable 
where  the  storm  drains  may  aid  in  subdrainage  of  the  ground. 

House  Connections. — As  there  is  little  or  no  foreign  material 
carried  in  the  discharge  from  the  roof  leaders,  house  connections 


218  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

may  be  laid  on  grades  just  sufficient  to  carry  the  estimated 
discharge.     Six  in.  house  connections  are  commonly  used. 

Manholes. — Manholes,  which  should  be  located  at  all  changes 
of  line  and  grade,  should  be  spaced  at  intervals  of  from  250  to  400 
ft.  apart.  Manhole  covers  should  be  perforated  to  permit  of 
ventilation. 

Catch  Basins  and  Inlets. — When  the  velocity  in  the  system  is 
self-cleansing,  full  entrance  storm  inlets  are  preferable  to  catch 
basins.  Traps  on  storm  inlet  connections  are  undesirable  and 
objectionable  and  frequently  fail  of  intended  purpose.  The  inlet 
should  be  designed  to  give  direct  discharge  into  the  connection, 
so  as  to  prevent  the  retention  or  deposit  of  sand  or  other  mate- 
rials, and  to  provide  ample  waterway  area.  Inlet  and  catch 
basin  connections,  which  should  not  be  of  less  size  than  the  mini- 
mum for  street  laterals,  should  be  laid  on  a  grade  of  not  less 
than  two  per  cent.,  and  on  as  near  a  direct  line  as  possible  to  the 
street  lateral. 

Catch  basins  are  to  be  used  only  when  it  is  necessary  to  prevent 
the  discharge  of  heavy  materials  into  the  drains.  Such  design 
involves  careful  maintenance,  the  liability  of  stoppage  and  a 
possibility  of  nuisance.  Where  provided  the  catchment  capacity 
should  be  ample  to  permit  settling  and  retention  of  foreign 
materials,  but  even  then  the  necessity  of  frequent  cleaning  is 
always  present  and  excessive  storms  quickly  fill  such  basins, 
thus  rendering  them  of  little  effect. 

Storm  water  inlets  or  catch  basins  should  be  provided  at  the 
following  locations:  at  low  points  in  the  gutters;  at  breaks  of 
grade  in  the  gutters  where  the  grade  is  perceptibly  reduced; 
at  points  where  there  is  a  concentration  of  surface  drainage 
from  adjoining  areas;  at  important  street  intersections.  In 
business  districts  it  will  also  be  good  practice  to  provide  four 
rather  than  one  or  two  storm  inlets  at  intersections,  so  as  to 
prevent  flooding  of  the  street  crossing.  Where  the  grade  is 
continuous  around  the  intersection,  the  inlet  should  be  located 
at  a  point  a  short  distance  above  the  first  sidewalk  crossing. 
While  it  is  more  economical  to  locate  the  inlet  at  the  midpoint 
of  the  curb  arc  or  return,  such  location  is  unsightly  and  does 
not  keep  the  street  crossings  clear  from  flooding. 

At  ordinary  grades  of  from  one  to  three  per  cent.,  inlets  should 
be  spaced  at  distances  of  about  500  to  600  ft.  On  flatter  grades 
closer  spacing  will  be  desirable  in  order  to  prevent  ponding  or 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE 


219 


pooling  of  water  in  the  gutter,  and  on  steeper  grades  such  spacing 
also  will  be  required  to  make  it  possible  to  catch  the  water  mov- 
ing at  high  velocity  in  the  gutter  at  the  inlet  opening.  The  type 
of  roadway  pavement  will  have  an  influence  on  the  spacing  of 
inlets  and  where  the  surface  is  liable  to  erosion,  deterioration,  or 
disintegration  by  the  action  of  water,  closer  spacing  of  inlets  will 
be  required,  particularly  on  flat  and  steep  grades 

Typical  drawings  of  storm  inlets  are  shown  in  Figs.  34  and  30. 


Fig.  36. — Typical  storm  inlet  as  designed  for  theLoveland  Farms  housing  project. 

Location. — When  the  separate  sanitary  sewer  is  laid  in  the 
center  of  the  street,  the  storm  drain  is  ordinarily  laid  between 
the  curb  and  the  center  of  the  street,  at  a  distance  of  about  five 
ft.  from  the  curb  line.  If  a  planting  space  of  ample  width  is 
provided  and  if  there  is  room  for  clearance  between  the  tree  line 
and  the  curb,  or  the  sidewalk  and  the  property  line,  the  storm 
drain  may  be  laid  in  such  space.  ^Tiere  some  of  the  substruc- 
tures must  be  laid  under  the  roadway  pavement,  it  is  preferable 
to  locate  the  storm  drain  in  the  street  rather  than  other  utility 
lines  for  which  the  necessity  for  repair  is  more  likely. 


COMBINED  SEWERS 


Combined  sewers  must  be  provided  to  serve  the  requirements 

of  both  systems  of  the  separate  plan,  and  the  design,  therefore, 


220  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

will  be  affected  by  the  considerations  heretofore  listed  under 
each  system. 

Quantity  and  Capacity. — The  maximum  capacity  to  be  pro- 
vided is  fixed  by  the  maximum  rate  for  storm  water  discharge, 
which  is  to  be  calculated  in  the  same  manner  as  for  storm  drains. 
There  is,  however,  this  exception;  as  sanitary  sewage  and  roof 
water  is  carried  in  the  same  pipes  and  the  flow  at  all  times  con- 
tains sewage,  in  varying  proportion  to  the  storm  flow,  flood- 
ing or  over-taxing  of  capacity  will  be  followed  by  more  serious 
results.  The  factor  of  safety  used  in  fixing  capacity,  therefore, 
will  have  to  be  increased,  as  it  will  only  be  permissible  to  ex- 
clude the  most  excessive  storms.  Under  some  conditions  even 
the  maximum  rate  of  rainfall  will  have  to  be  provided  for.  The 
necessity  of  allowing  for  the  maximum  rate  of  rainfall  will  be 
increased  where  drainage  from  business  districts  is  under 
consideration. 

The  rainfall  rate  to  be  provided  for  will  vary  from  the  maxi- 
mum or  heavy  storms,  occurring  at  intervals  of  once  in  five  to 
ten  years.  The  possibility  of  property  damage  and  trouble  by 
flooding  must  be  balanced  with  the  question  of  cost. 

Consideration  must  be  given  and  allowance  be  made  for  waste 
from  street  cleaning  by  flushing  and  flow  from  flush-tanks  and 
similar  sources.  The  design  must  also  take  into  account  the 
minimum  flow,  which  will  consist  of  the  minimum  sanitary  dis- 
charge from  the  house  fixtures  plus  leakage.  Owing  to  the  com- 
paratively large  size  of  the  sewer,  this  flow  will  ordinarily  be 
sluggish  compared  with  that  which  obtains  in  the  sanitary  sewer 
of  the  separate  system,  where  the  capacity  is  more  nearly  adapted 
to  the  hydraulic  requirements. 

Velocities  and  Grades. — The  minimum  grade  of  pipe  sewers  of 
from  10  to  15  in.  in  diameter,  should  be  such  as  will  give  veloci- 
ties of  not  less  than  3  ft.  per  second,  when  flowing  full  or  half  full. 
When  larger  sizes  are  under  consideration,  conditions  obtaining 
under  minimum  flow  must  be  investigated. 

Where  sufficient  velocity  cannot  be  obtained  in  the  ordinary 
circular  section,  recourse  must  be  had  to  special  sections,  such 
as  the  "ecg-shape",  or  the  elliptical  sewer,  for  the  smaller  sizes; 
and  in  any  event,  special  attention  must  be  given  to  the  design 
of  t  lie  invert  in  large  sewers,  with  a  view  of  providing  for  a  suffi- 
cient depth  of  flow  during  dry  weather  conditions.  At  the  same 
tii iic  the  section  must  be  so  designed  as  to  prevent  deposits  on 
ledges  where  the  shape  changes. 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE  221 

Depth  and  Location. — The  flow  line  of  combined  sewers  should 
be  at  least  10  ft.  below  the  surface  of  the  street,  the  depth  being 
fixed  at  a  required  fall  for  the  house  connections.  In  business 
districts  this  should  be  increased  to  12  ft. 

The  location  ordinarily  used  for  the  combined  sewer  is  the 
center  of  the  street.  Alternative  locations  in  the  alley  or  ease- 
ment at  the  rear  of  the  houses  should,  however,  be  inquired 
into  and  adopted  if  economical  and  advantageous. 

Catch  Basins. — Traps  are  generally  provided  on  house  con- 
nections, and  like  wise  on  catch  basins  or  storm  inlet  pipe 
connections.  On  account  of  the  relatively  lower  self-cleansing 
characteristic  of  combined  sewers,  catch  basins  are  employed 
more  often  than  inlets,  by  reason  of  necessity,  and  local  practice 
indicates  this.  A  trap  may  be  provided  either  in  the  catch 
basin  connection,  or  may  be  formed  in  the  catch  basin  itself; 
the  former  is  preferable. 

SEWAGE  TREATMENT  AND   DISPOSAL 

General  Considerations.— The  term  "Sewage  Treatment  and 
Disposal"  covers  the  manner  and  method  of  the  ultimate  dis- 
position of  sewage.  While  it  commonly  refers  to  works  providing 
treatment  of  sewage,  it  may  furnish  only  a  properly  designed 
outlet  into  an  open  water  course.  It  may,  however,  involve 
construction  of  extensive  works  designed  to  reduce  the  high  con- 
tent of  organic  matter,  to  a  degree  of  purity — the  so-called 
drinking  water  standard. 

There  is  embraced  in  the  consideration  of  this  important  sub- 
ject, not  only  a  knowledge  of  the  various  processes  and  methods, 
but  also  the  application  of  them  to  the  problem  in  hand.  The 
object  sought  is  the  disposition  of  the  sewage  in  such  manner 
as  will  be  sanitary,  cause  no  offense  or  nuisance,  which  will  not 
disturb  the  amenities,  and  which  will  not  menace  or  affect  the 
health  of  the  community  from  which  the  sewage  is  discharged, 
or  that  of  any  other  community  in  the  locality.  Whatever  may 
be  the  requirements,  the  problem  must  be  solved  in  the  manner 
and  by  the  methods  most  adaptable  and  effective  to  accomplish 
the  desired  results,  and  whereby  the  cost  of  construction  and 
the  cost  of  operation  will  be  considered  together  and  rendered 
as  low  as  consistent  with  the  desired  results.  Due  regard  must 
be  given  not  only  to  the  requirements  of  the  present,  but  to  the 


222  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

conditions  of  the  future,  as  they  may  be  affected  by  growth,  or 
by  a  change  or  raising  of  the  sanitary  policy. 

It  is  beyond  the  scope  and  limits  of  this  volume  to  cover  in 
detail  the  proper  selection  of  type  of  plant  and  its  design.  The 
subject  is  complex,  highly  technical  in  its  several  aspects,  as  it 
concerns  the  sciences  of  bacteriology,  chemistry,  hydraulics,  and 
is  a  distinct  and  separate  branch  of  the  engineering  profession. 
It  is  greatly  affected  by  experimental  and  operative  data  of 
existing  plants  and  deductions  from  lengthy  investigations. 

While  there  are  but  few  who  will  question  the  necessity  of 
proper  sewage  disposal,  it  is  generally  looked  upon  by  those  upon 
whom  the  expense  falls,  as  an  added  and  expensive  burden, 
bearing  no  return  or  profit  to  the  builder  and  installed  only  to 
satisfy  the  whims  of  state  authority.  There  is,  therefore,  often 
a  disinclination  to  do  the  right  thing  at  all,  with  the  result  that 
it  is  frequently  not  done  well  or  wisely,  and  that  the  cost  of  con- 
struction and  operation  is  excessive.  The  owner  is  chiefly 
concerned  in  effecting  disposal  at  the  least  cost,  that  the  require- 
ments of  the  State  Health  authorities  be  complied  with — but  he 
is  vitally  interested  in  a  solution  which  will  not  in  any  way 
depreciate  the  value  of  his  property. 

It  is  the  intention  here  to  point  out  the  principal  methods 
and  means  of  sewage  treatment  and  disposal,  with  some  informa- 
tion as  to  their  application  to  various  conditions  and  to  indicate 
the  extent  and  the  comparative  cost  of  such  installations.  It 
is  well  also  to  add  a  few  words  of  precaution  and  advice  as  to 
the  selection  of  the  best  adapted  methods  of  treatment,  and  as 
to  the  selection  of  the  site  or  location  of  the  works.  For  the 
results  of  sewage  treatment  and  disposal  installations  have  not 
always  been  entirely  satisfactory  and  failure  is  due  largely  to 
the  lack  of  judgment  in  selection  of  type  and  to  careless  and 
inefficient  operation. 

Purposes  of  Sewage  Disposal. — The  decision  to  discharge  sew- 
age into  bodies  of  water,  requires  consideration  of  the  possible 
insanitary  and  harmful  effects  of  such  discharge,  and  of  the  means 
and  processes  which  may  be  resorted  to,  to  prevent  such  evils, 
or  to  confine  them  within  reasonable  limits.  There  is  involved 
a  study  of  the  amount,  character  and  condition  of  the  sewage 
to  be  discharged;  a  proper  conception  of  the  character  and  extent 
of  the  various  obnoxious  and  insanitary  conditions  which  may 
result   therefrom;   the   character   and   physical   attributes   and 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE  223 

condition  of  the  stream;  the  nature  and  the  uses  of  the  stream; 
the  means  and  methods  of  sewage  treatment  and  disposal  which 
are  best  adapted  to  prevent  obnoxious  or  insanitary  conditions, 
or  to  confine  the  affects  within  reasonable  and  permissible  limits, 
consistent  with  local  conditions  and  the  extent  of  injury  which 
may  be  suffered  by  the  interests  involved. 

The  following  conditions  may  be  created: 

Physical  effects  in  the  vicinity  of  discharge,  such  as  fouling 
and  deposits  of  solid  matters  in  and  along  the  shores  and  banks 
of  1  he  stream;  formation  of  banks  of  sewage  mud  offshore  in  shal- 
low water  and  possibly  in  the  body  or  channel  of  the  stream;  dis- 
coloration and  turbidity  at  and  below  the  point  of  discharge. 
All  the  foregoing  constitute  local  nuisances  generally  objection- 
able in  appearance,  give  rise  to  offensive  odors,  and  may  directly 
or  indirectly  effect  the  health  of  the  community,  and  prevent 
the  use  of  the  water  for  public,  industrial  and  private  purposes. 
The  conditions  above  noted  will  generally  obtain  in  more  or  less 
aggravated  degree  in  the  vicinity  of  the  outlet,  unless  there  are 
unusually  advantageous  circumstances.  The  continuation  of 
such  evils  are  tolerated  only  because  of  the  indifference  of  public 
opinion.  The  conditions  above  referred  to  are  brought  about 
chiefly  by  the  floating  and  suspended  solids  carried  in  the  sewage 
and  are  referred  to  as  "local  nuisances". 

General  pollution  of  the  water  course,  or  other  body  of  water, 
constituting  a  condition  of  general  nuisance — a  term  used  to 
describe  the  effects  of  sewage  pollution  in  the  main  body  of  the 
stream — may  obtain  a  considerable  distance  from  the  point  of 
discharge,  and  is  to  be  distinguished  from  local  nuisance.  It  is 
evidenced  in  a  physical  manner  by  floating  matter,  turbidity, 
discoloration,  offensive  odors  and,  in  a  biochemical  manner,  by 
changes  in  the  character  of  the  water,  resulting  principally  by 
the  reduction  and  in  the  most  extreme  cases,  by  the  exhaustion 
of  the  oxygen  normally  contained  in  fresh  water.  In  the  many 
extreme  cases  the  water  of  the  stream  may  approximate  that  of 
sewage,  and  this  condition  may  obtain  not  only  in  small  water 
courses  such  as  brooks,  but  also  in  larger  streams  and  lakes.  It 
may  not  directly  concern  the  community  from  which  the  sewage 
is  discharged,  but  its  effects  may  be  far-reaching  and  interfere 
with  or  prevent  the  use  of  the  waters  of  the  stream  for  useful 
and  necessary  purposes,  and  may  be  destructive  to  fish  life. 

Contamination  of  water  supplies  and  of  water  used  for  such 


224  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

purposes  as  bathing,  boating,  and  for  manufacturing  and  indus- 
trial purposes  may  also  result ;  all  of  which  are  of  vital  importance 
to  the  health  and  welfare  of  the  community.  Such  contamina- 
tion may  occur  either  in  the  vicinity  of  the  point  of  discharge, 
or  at  points  more  remote.  The  question  involved  is  not  so 
much  that  the  water  is  polluted,  for  the  reason  that  most  water 
courses  are  unsuitable  for  use  as  public  water  supplies  without 
some  degree  of  water  purification,  but  that  contamination  may 
be  of  such  magnitude  as  to  render  the  purification  or  use  of  such 
water  unduly  expensive  or  unreliable. 

To  avoid  any  or  all  of  the  foregoing  conditions  being  created, 
recourse  must  be  had  to  that  method,  process,  and  type  of  sewage 
disposal  works  which  will  safeguard  public  health,  and  will 
prevent  or  restrict  objectionable  effects  in  a  manner  and  to  a 
degree  commensurate  with  the  rights  and  relative  interests  of 
the  several  users  of  the  water  of  the  stream.  The  particular 
works  should  be  of  such  kind,  nature  and  extent  that  neither 
the  community  discharging  the  sewage  will  be  put  to  unreason- 
able expense  or  the  users  subjected  to  danger  or  unwarranted 
expense  or  burden  in  purifying  or  treating  water  for  drinking 
purposes. 

Character  and  Constituents  o)  Sewage. — Sewage,  composed  of 
liquid  wastes  from  domestic  and  industrial  sources,  contains 
organic  and  inorganic  matters  in  varying  proportions,  in  the  shape 
of  floating  and  suspended  solids,  and  in  solution.  It  contains 
enormous  numbers  of  bacterial  organisms  and  its  presence  as  a 
polluting,  contaminating  or  disease  producing  agency  is  identi- 
fied by  the  presence  of  the  bacteria  B.  Coli,  an  organism  emanat- 
ing from  the  human  intestinal  tract. 

Chemical  analyses  of  the  sewage  of  various  localities  reveals 
a  very  wide  range  in  its  character,  constituents  and  composition, 
which  is  caused  by  many  factors  and  conditions,  particularly 
the  per  capita  use  and  character  of  water,  the  relative  amounts 
and  nature  of  trade  waste,  the  extent  to  which  street  wash  is 
admitted  into  the  sewerage  system,  and  the  condition  of  the 
sewage  with  respect  to  age.  Not  only  does  the  sewage  of  various 
localities  show  great  differences  but  the  strength  and  composition 
of  the  sewage  in  any  particular  sewer  varies  from  hour  to  hour, 
and  moreover  the  condition  of  sewage  changes  with  time  as  the 
process  of  its  decomposition  proceeds.  Sewage  is  therefore  vari- 
able and  complex. 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE  225 

The  important  characteristic  of  sewage  is  the  amount  and  kind 
of  solid  matters  it  contains,  a  considerable  portion  of  which  is 
organic,  and  hence  subject  to  decomposition,  and  the  balance 
mineral  matter.  The  solids  are  partly  in  suspension  and  partly 
dissolved  or  in  solution  in  the  sewage.  The  suspended  matter  is 
of  particular  significance  on  account  of  the  part  it  plays  in  the 
creation  of  local  nuisances  in  the  vicinity  of  the  outlet.1 

Suspended  solids  are  those  which  are  removed  from  sewage  or 
effluent  by  standard  laboratory  methods  of  filtration.  That 
part  which  subsides  in  quiescent  sewage  in  two  hours  is  termed 
the  "settling  solids".  Some  of  the  suspended  matter  is  so 
finely  divided  that  it  cannot  be  settled  by  ordinary  settling  proc- 
esses, and  is  defined  as  colloidal  matter,  which  is  suspended 
matter  so  finely  divided  that  it  will  not  subside  in  two  hours  and 
will  not  pass  through  a  parchment  membrane  in  the  ordinary 
process  of  dialysis. 

The  sewage  of  the  typical  residential  community  will  generally 
contain  less  than  1000  parts  per  million  of  solids,  and  perhaps 
GOO  to  800  parts  per  million  may  be  taken  as  typical.  Thus  it 
will  be  seen  that  the  solids  constitute  less  than  one-tenth  of  one 
per  cent,  of  the  total.  About  one-half  of  the  total  solids  will  be 
in  suspension  and  the  balance  in  solution.  Then  again,  ap- 
proximately one-half  only  of  the  suspended  solids  can  be  settled 
in  two  hours.  It  will  be  evident  that  the  exact  amount  of  the 
solids  which  can  be  settled  out  in  ordinary  treatment  processes 
is  of  great  importance,  but  that  even  though  very  efficient  sedi- 
mentation or  removal  is  obtained,  and  practically  all  of  the  set- 
tling solids  thereby  removed  from  the  sewage,  the  effluent  will 
still  contain  a  veiy  large  portion  of  the  putrescible  organic  matter, 
which  is  either  in  the  form  of  collodial  matter,  but  not  susceptible 
to  sedimentation,  or  in  solution. 

This  then  will  indicate  why  some  relatively  simple  processes 
such  as  screening  and  tank  treatment  of  sewage,  while  they  may 
be  effective  to  correct  local  nuisances  and  the  more  obvious  effects 
of  sewage  discharge,  cannot  be  expected  to  prevent  contamina- 
tion of  water  supplies,  unless  further  treatment  is  given.  Resi- 
dential sewage  from  small  communities  has  this  characteristic 
that  the  proportion  of  matters  in  suspension  and  settling  solids 

1  See  definition  of  terms  used  in  sewage  treatment:  Report  of  the  Com- 
mittee on  Sewerage  and  Sewage  Disposal  of  the  Sanitary  Engineering 
Section  of  the  American  Public  Health  Association,  1!)17. 

15 


226  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

is  relatively  high  compared  to  the  sewage  of  large  manufacturing 
cities. 

Decomposition  oj  Sewage.— Sewage  undergoes  a  process  of 
decomposition,  accomplished  by  chemical,  physical,  and  bacter- 
iological agencies,  all  of  which  play  an  important  part  and  which 
account  for  the  varying  conditions  and  characteristics.  The 
process  in  its  simplest  terms,  consists  of  the  breaking  down  of  the 
organic  matter  in  solution  and  suspension  and  resolving  it  into 
stable  compounds,  which  is  finally  accomplished  by  the  action 
of  bacteria,  both  with  and  without  the  presence  of  oxygen. 

An  important  characteristic  of  the  process  of  the  decomposition 
of  the  contained  organic  matter  of  sewage  is  the  consumption  of 
the  oxygen  contained  in  the  sewage  and  in  the  water  into  which 
it  is  discharged.  Both  the  strength  of  the  sewage  and  the  degree 
of  decomposition  which  it  has  undergone,  can  be  measured  in 
terms  of  the  amount  of  oxygen  required  for  the  completion  of 
the  process  of  oxidation. 

The  process  of  decomposition  of  sewage  is  marked  by  the 
following  characteristics: 

Beginning  generally  in  the  collecting  system,  the  solids  are 
broken  up  by  mechanical  action,  some  becoming  suspended  mat- 
ter and  some  going  into  solution;  the  oxygen  contained  in  the 
water  begins  to  be  absorbed  by  the  organic  matter,  first  by  the 
organic  matter  in  solution,  and  later  by  the  suspended  matter; 
this  is  continued  as  the  breaking  down  process  of  decomposition 
of  the  solids  proceeds.  When  the  oxygen  in  the  sewage  has  been 
consumed  and  the  decomposition  of  the  suspended  matter  begins, 
which  may  take  place  in  about  six  or  eight  hours,  the  sewage 
may  be  said  to  be  stale.  The  bacterial  agencies  which  bring 
about  decomposition  work  either  with  the  presence  of  air,  in 
which  case  the  process  is  one  of  oxidation,  and  is  termed  aerobic; 
or  in  the  absence  of  oxygen,  the  bacterial  organisms  in  this  case 
being  termed  anaerobic. 

Final  decomposition,  without  nuisance,  can  be  brought  about 
only  by  complete  oxidation,  and  can  be  effected  either  by  the 
discharge  of  the  sewage  into  a  body  of  water,  the  oxygen  content 
of  which  is  sufficient  to  complete  decomposition  by  oxidation, 
or  by  accelerating  the  process  of  oxidation  in  treatment  plants 
by  artificial  means. 

Disposal  by  Dilution  and  Diffusion. — Dilution  in  a  body  of 
water  is  a  natural  process  of  disposal.     To  be  satisfactory,  it 


SEWERAGE  A  ND  DRA I  SACK  227 

must  be  carried  out  without  local  nuisance  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
outlet,  and  must  not  contaminate  or  pollute  the  waters  of  the 
stream  in  such  manner  as  to  violate  reasonable  sanitary  require- 
ments. The  ability  of  the  body  of  water  to  handle  the  burden 
placed  upon  it  by  the  discharge  of  the  sewage  will  depend  upon 
its  condition  with  respect  to  pollution  from  other  sources,  its  vol- 
ume, depth,  character  of  its  banks  and  shores,  and  the  velocity 
and  volume  of  its  discharge. 

Many  instances  may  be  cited  of  the  self-purifying  abilities  of 
water  courses  into  which  the  sewage  from  large  populations  is 
discharged  without  seriously  affecting  their  condition,  use  and 
appearance.  This  obtains  because  the  quantity  of  oxygen  avail- 
able is  sufficient  for  oxidation,  and  other  conditions  are  favorable. 
The  complexity  of  the  problem,  the  variety  of  conditions,  and 
lack  of  sufficient  precise  data,  make  it  impossible  to  set  a  definite 
and  general  standard  which  will  define  the  conditions  under 
which  disposal  by  dilution  can  be  effected  without  objectionable 
conditions. 

Authoritative  Opinions. — As  a  criterion  for  the  guidance 
of  sanitary  engineers,  and  with  the  understanding  that  local 
nuisance  and  contamination  of  water  supply  be  avoided,  the 
Passenger  Transportation  and  Housing  Division  of  the  Emer- 
gency Fleet  Corporation  recommended  the  following: 

"Disposal  by  dilution  is  generally  satisfactory  as  regards  freedom 
from  gross  nuisance,  if  the  sewage  is  properly  carried  away  from  the 
shore  and  in  shallow  water  through  a  submerged  multiple  outlet,  and 
when  the  flow  of  the  stream  in  extreme  dry  weather  will  provide  a  dilu- 
tion of  about  5  cu.  ft.  per  second  per  thousand  population  connected 
with  the  sewers.  Streams  connected  with  public  water  supplies  should 
receive  special  consideration." 

The  instructions  issued  by  the  Engineering  Division  of  the 
United  States  Housing  Corporation  used  the  same  amount. 

This  is  an  indication  of  the  amount  of  dilution  which  will  be 
required  under  average  conditions  but  cannot  be  considered 
as  of  universal  application,  particularly  where  there  is  likelihood 
of  the  pooling  of  sewage  during  dry  weather  periods,  and  in  the  case 
of  shallow  streams  having  irregular  courses  and  shallow  depths. 

When  the  stream  below  the  sewer  outlet  is  used  as  a  source  of 
water  supply  the  question  of  pollution  of  such  supplies  must 
receive  careful  consideration.  As  the  contamination  of  drinking 
water  must  in  any  event  be  absolutely  avoided,  we  must  be 


228  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

guided  by  the  conclusion  that  untreated  sewage  cannot  be  dis- 
charged into  a  body  of  water  so  used,  if  an  unreasonable  burden 
is  thereby  placed  upon  the  systems  of  purification.  The  rela- 
tive economy  and  effectiveness  of  sewage  treatment  versus 
water  purification  is  involved,  and  in  this  connection  the  follow- 
ing conclusions  reached  by  the  Advisory  Engineer  of  the  Inter- 
national Joint  Commission  are  of  interest. 

"In  water  ways  where  some  pollution  is  inevitable  and  where  the 
ratio  of  the  volume  of  the  water  to  the  volume  of  sewage  is  so  large  that 
no  local  nuisance  can  result,  it  is  our  judgment  that  the  method  of 
sewage  disposal  by  dilution  represents  a  natural  resource  and  that  the 
utilization  of  this  resource  is  justifiable  for  economic  reasons,  provided 
that  an  unreasonable  burden  or  responsibility  is  not  placed  upon  any 
water  purification  plant  and  that  no  menace  to  public  health  is  occa- 
sioned thereby." 

"It  is  our  opinion  that,  in  general,  protection  of  public  water  sup- 
plies is  more  economically  secured  by  water  purification  at  the  intake 
than  by  sewage  purification  at  the  sewer  outlet,  but  that  under  some 
conditions  both  water  purification  and  sewage  treatment  may  be  neces- 
sary." 

As  to  the  particular  problem  in  hand,  that  of  the  pollution  of 
the  boundary  waters  between  the  United  States  and  the  Domin- 
ion of  Canada,  the  Advisory  Engineers  concluded: 

"  While  realizing  that  in  certain  cases  the  discharge  of  crude  sewage 
into  the  boundary  waters  may  be  without  danger,  it  is  our  judgment 
that  effective  sanitary  administration  requires  the  adoption  of  the 
general  policy  that  no  untreated  sewage  from  cities  or  towns  shall  be 
discharged  into  the  boundary  waters." 

In  determining  the  advisability  of  disposal  by  dilution  without 
treatment,  it  is  necessary  to  know  to  what  extent  water  used  as  a 
source  of  supply  may  be  polluted.  In  this  connection  the 
standards  considered  by  the  Joint  Commission  and  by  the  Public 
Health  Service  of  the  United  States  Treasury  Department  arc  of 
interest  (See  Chapter  VI)  and  will  aid  in  determining  whether, 
under  the  given  conditions,  disposal  by  dilution  without  treat- 
ment   is  permissible. 

Location  oj  Outlets. — Where  disposal  by  dilution  is  determined 
upon,  the  discharge  of  sewage  and  of  the  effluent  of  treatment 
works,  require  careful  consideration  in  the  location  and  design 
of  the  outlet,  so  as  to  prevent  local  nuisance  at  the  shore  and  in 


SEWERAGE  A  ND  DRAINAGE  229 

the  vicinity  of  the  point  of  discharge.  The  outlet  should  be 
located  with  proper  regard  to  the  depth  of  water,  direction  and 
velocity  of  current,  and  to  such  conditions  as  shoals,  sand  bars, 
or  eddies.  In  most  cases  this  will  require  extension  of  the  outlet 
beyond  the  shore  to  such  a  point  and  to  such  depth  that  good 
diffusion  or  dispersion  of  the  sewage  can  be  obtained  and  main- 
tained. The  velocity  of  flow  in  the  submerged  outlet  must  be 
sufficient  to  prevent  deposits  therein  and  in  the  immediate 
vicinity  of  the  outlet  end,  for  this  reason  the  size  is  generally 
made  less  than  that  of  the  outfall  sewer.  This  will  involve  loss 
of  head,  and  may  require  more  than  one  line  in  cases  where 
fluctuations  in  quantity  of  discharge  are  large.  Multiple  outlets 
also  promote  dispersion.  In  the  case  of  combined  sewers,  or 
where  a  part  of  the  storm  water  is  admitted  into  the  system  an 
overflow  is  provided  at  the  shore,  the  excess  discharge  passing 
directly  into  the  water  course. 

The  elevation  of  the  approach  of  the  outlet  line  must  be  fixed 
with  proper  reference  to  the  elevation  of  the  water  in  the  stream, 
so  as  to  obtain  a  free  discharge  and  to  avoid  checking  the  flow 
in  the  outfall  under  ordinary  working  conditions,  which  would 
result  in  the  forming  of  deposits  in  the  sewer.  This  should 
also  be  located  with  reference  to  the  possibility  of  the  future 
construction  of  treatment  works,  so  that  the  expense  of  future 
construction  in  that  connection,  may  be  minimized  and  the  essen- 
tial features,  particularly  the  hydraulic  requirements  of  future 
treatment  works  should  be  then  provided  for.  The  outlet  should 
not  be  located  in  proximity  to  public  highways,  bridges,  or 
dwellings,  as  injury  to  private  or  public  interest  may  ensue,  and 
nuisances,  which  otherwise  might  be  relatively  of  little  impor- 
tance, may  be  a  matter  of  serious  moment. 

Particular  consideration  is  necessary  where  public  water  sup- 
plies take  their  raw  water  near  the  sewer  outlet.  Unless  condi- 
tions are  exceptionable  and  most  favorable  for  thorough  mixing 
of  sewage  with  the  water  of  the  stream  or  other  body  of  water, 
disposal  without  treatment  should  not  be  used  if  the  water  works 
intake  is  within  several  miles  of  the  outlet.  There  will,  therefore, 
arise  problems  of  comparative  cost  as  to  the  advisability  of 
building  long  outfalls,  or  providing  a  reasonable  degree  of 
treatment. 

Discharge  into  estuaries  and  creeks  of  tidal  waters,  present 
difficulties,  due  to  the  generally  prevailing  shallowness  of  the  water 


230  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

and  the  effect  of  the  incoming  fide.  In  such  cases  exceptional 
care  will  have  to  be  taken  so  that  obnoxious  conditions  will  not 
be  created;  such  may  require  treatment  in  tanks  or  screening, 
or  storage  in  tanks,  with  discharge  on  receding  tide. 

Noreg  Village  and  Yorkship  Village,  built  during  the  War  by 
the  Housing  Division  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  near 
Camden,  New  Jersey,  present  good  illustrations  of  the  alterna- 
tive methods.  See  Fig.  37  for  illustration  of  plant  for  the  latter 
place.  The  streams  into  which  the  effluent  from  these  two  towns 
discharge  were  in  many  conditions  similar.  Settling  tanks,  with 
provision  for  separation  and  removal  of  sludge,  were  provided 
for  Yorkship  Village,  which  has  a  population  of  about  8500  and 
discharges  its  sewage  into  a  branch  of  Newton  Creek,  a  small  tidal 
stream  or  estuary.  In  the  case  of  Noreg  Village  of  much  smaller 
size,  the  construction  of  treatment  works  was  not  deemed  war- 
ranted, and  here  the  discharge  from  a  population  of  about 
3500  is  pumped  into  a  storage  tank,  which  is  emptied  upon  the 
ebbing  tide. 

Processes  of  Treatment. — The  methods  and  processes  of  sew- 
age treatment,  each  of  which  is  intended  to  accomplish  the  specific 
results,  may  be  broadly  classified  as  follows: 

(a)  Those  to  remove  suspended  matter  by  mechanical  means, 
such  as  by  sedimentation  or  screening; 

(6)  Those  to  remove  the  finer  suspended  matter  and  oxidize  the 
dissolved  solids; 

(c)  Destruction  of  the  bacteria  by  disinfection,  or  sterilization. 

The  process  of  treatment  which  may  be  required  or  desirable 
may  be  a  single  process,  adapted  to  the  requirements,  or  it  may 
consist  of  a  combination  of  various  processes. 

The  discussions  of  the  various  processes  of  sewage  treatment 
which  follow  are  necessarily  limited  to  their  main  features  and 
functions.  Before  entering  upon  these  descriptions,  it  will  be 
well  to  state  that  many  of  the  definitions  used  in  this  connec- 
tion are  adopted  from  those  drafted  by  the  Committee  of  the 
American  Public  Health  Association,  1917. 

Screening. — Screens  of  various  types  are  used  as  a  mechanical 
method  of  removing  floating  solids  and  suspended  matter. 
Coarse  screens,  which  have  openings  in  excess  of  1  in.  in  least 
dimension,  and  of  the  bar  and  grating  type,  are  used  to  remove  the 
larger  particles,  either  as  preliminary  to  further  treatment  or 
before   disposal   by  dilution.     While   serviceable   in   protecting 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE 


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232  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

pumps  and  preliminary  to  further  operations,  coarse  screens  are 
not  generally  useful  in  the  disposal  of  sewage  from  the  small 
communities. 

Fine  screens  are  those  which  have  openings  of  ^  m« 
or  less,  in  least  dimension,  and .  are  being  increasingly  used, 
both  as  a  preliminary  process  to  further  treatment,  and  under 
some  conditions,  as  the  sole  method  of  treatment  prior  to  dis- 
charge. There  are  various  types  of  fine  screens,  including  band 
screens,  wing  screens,  drum  screens,  and  disc  screens. 

Band  screens  are  of  wire  mesh  or  bars,  the  screen  operates  on 
rollers  on  the  endless  belt  principle,  with  provision  for  removal  of 
screenings  from  the  upper  end. 

Wing  screens  are  usually  of  the  bar  type,  composed  of  radial  or 
curved  vanes,  rotating  on  a  horizontal  axis  and  depositing  the 
screenings  by  a  mechanical  device. 

Drum  screens  consist  of  cylindrical  or  conical  screens  operating 
on  a  horizontal  axis. 

A  number  of  installations  have  been  made  in  recent  years  of 
the  Riensch-Wurl  type  of  disc  screen,  which  consists  of  a  circular 
inclined  perforated  plate,  set  at  an  inclination  with  the  horizontal 
and  surmounted  by  a  perforated  concentric  truncated  cone  of 
smaller  radius.  The  perforations  in  the  plate  and  cone  are 
elongated  openings  or  slots  the  width  of  which  is  dependent  upon 
the  requirements.  The  chief  advantage  of  this  screen  is  its  com- 
paratively large  screening  area,  mechanical  simplicity  of  opera- 
tion and  effective  arrangement  for  cleaning. 

Tank  Treatment. — Tank  treatment  consists  primarily  of  the 
detention  of  the  sewage  in  a  settling  tank  for  a  sufficient  period 
of  time  to  effect  the  removal  by  sedimentation  of  a  considerable 
portion  of  the  suspended  solids.  In  some  tanks,  provision  is 
made  for  digestion  of  the  settled  solids  or  sludge,  so  as  to  permit 
of  its  disposal  without  further  treatment.  In  the  simpler  types 
sludge  digestion  is  accomplished  in  separate  tanks. 

The  simplest  type  of  tank  is  the  one  story  sedimentation  tank, 
through  which  the  sewage  is  passed  at  slow  velocity  and  the  ac- 
cumulated sludge  is  drawn  off  at  comparatively  frequent  inter- 
vals, sludge  digestion  being  accomplished  in  auxiliary  tanks. 

The  septic  tank  is  a  one  story  sedimentation  tank,  ordinarily 
rectangular  in  shape,  from  which  the  sludge  is  drawn  off  only  at 
long  intervals.  There  is  to  some  extent  a  biological  action  in  the 
tank,  which  assists  in  reducing  the  finer  colloidal  settling  matter, 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE  233 

and  there  is  some  reduction  in  the  quantity  of  sludge  by 
liquefaction  under  the  action  of  anaerobic  bacteria.  While  many 
installations  have  been  made  in  this  country,  it  is  no  longer 
considered  to  be  suitable  for  use  in  connection  with  oxidizing 
processes,  as  other  types  of  tanks  have  taken  its  place  where 
the  removal  of  suspended  matter  is  the  sole  object  sought. 

Installations  consisting  of  tanks  with  hopper  bottoms,  built 
in  units  of  two  or  more,  will  sometimes  be  found  serviceable  under 
certain  local  conditions.  The  sludge  is  held  in  the  hopper  bot- 
tom and  the  operation  of  the  tank  continued  until  such  time  as 
the  sludge  can  be  run  off  without  causing  offense.  When  a  suffi- 
cient degree  of  digestion  of  the  sludge  cannot  be  obtained  other- 
wise, the  tank  is  thrown  out  of  operation  and  the  sludge  permitted 
to  decompose  and  digest,  other  units  being  meanwhile  used. 
Unless  the  installation  is  very  small  it  will  generally  be  preferable 
to  use  separate  sludge  digestion  tanks.  ' 

In  the  two  story  tank,  sewage  is  passed  through  the  tank  in 
such  a  manner  that  it  does  not  come  into  contact  with  the  sludge ; 
sedimentation  and  sludge  digestion  thus  take  place  in  the  same 
tank  without  the  effluent  becoming  septic  or  offensive.  The 
Imhoff  is  the  best  known  of  the  two  story  tanks.  In  this  tank 
the  suspended  matter  is  settled  out  and  automatically  removed 
through  slots  and  falls  to  the  bottom  of  the  settling  chamber 
where  sludge  digestion  takes  place.  The  tank  is  so  designed  that 
the  sludge  may  be  thoroughly  decomposed  and  rendered  free 
of  offensive  odor  so  that  it  can  be  drawn  off  and  dried  without 
nuisance. 

The  percentage  of  the  suspended  matter  removed  in  tanks  of 
the  various  types  varies  through  a  very  wide  range,  which  de- 
pends upon  the  design  and  operation  of  the  tank,  and  the  charac- 
ter and  condition  of  the  sewage. 

Filtration. — When  a  non-putrescible,  or  stable,  effluent  is 
required,  one  of  the  various  filtration  processes  may  be  adopted. 
The  sewage  is  passed  through  a  bed  of  broken  stone,  sand,  or 
other  material  and  as  a  result  of  bacterial  action  taking  place  in 
the  presence  of  air  in  the  interstices  and  on  the  surfaces  of  the 
filter  material,  the  organic  matter  in  the  sewage,  in  suspension 
and  dissolved,  undergoes  certain  biochemical  changes  and  is 
oxidized  and  converted  into  stable  compounds.  The  extent  to 
which  suspended  matter  is  removed  from  the  effluent  and  the 
bacterial  efficiency  are  dependent  upon  the  type  of  design,  of 
which  the  following  are  in  use: 


234  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Trickling  Filters.— In  this  type,  sometimes  called  sprinkling  filters, 
the  sewage  is  sprayed  through  nozzles,  or  distributed  by  mechanical 
device,  upon  a  bed,  several  feet  in  depth,  of  broken  stone  or  other  coarse 
grained  material,  through  which  it  slowly  percolates. 

Contact  Beds. — These  consist  of  water  tight  basins,  containing  a  bed 
of  broken  stone  or  other  coarse  grained  material,  which  is  alternately 
filled  with  sewage  and  emptied,  with  an  intervening  period  of  rest  to 
permit  of  aeration. 

Intermittent  Filtration. — This  provides  for  filtration  at  low  rate  through 
natural  or  artificial  beds  of  sand  with  alternate  periods  of  rest. 

Broad  Irrigation. — This  is  one  of  the  earlier  methods,  now  generally 
abandoned,  in  which  the  sewage  is  applied  to  a  specially  prepared  tract 
of  porous  soil,  which  in  some  cases  is  cultivated.  This  process  is  also 
known  as  sewage  farming  and  land  filtration. 

Before  the  raw  sewage  is  applied  to  any  filter  bed  it  should  be 
passed  through  screens  or  tanks,  to  remove  the  settling  solids  and 
so  prevent  clogging  of  the  filter  beds  and  to  lessen  the  burden 
imposed  upon  them.  While  the  effluent  from  well  designed  and 
operated  trickling  filters  or  contact  beds  will  be  stable,  it  may  be 
necessary  to  subject  the  effluent  to  subsequent  treatment  by 
secondary  filtration  or  sedimentation,  so  as  to  remove  the  non- 
putrescible  content  of  suspended  matter  and  to  more  completely 
destroy  the  bacteria.  Where  complete  bacterial  removal  is 
required,  the  effluent  from  the  beds  or  from  the  final  settling 
tanks  should  be  disinfected. 

Other  Processes.— Activated  Sludge. — This  consists  in  the  aeration  of 
raw  sewage,  mixed  with  a  suitable  quantity  of  activated  sludge  which 
has  been  previously  cultivated  in  such  manner  as  to  develop  bacterial 
activity.  This  process,  while  one  of  promise,  is  still  in  the  experimental 
and  developmental  stage. 

Chemical  Precipitation. — This  is  an  earlier  process  of  clarification  by 
settling  in  tanks,  combined  with  coagulation  by  chemicals,  usually 
lime.  It  is  no  longer  one  of  the  customary  methods.  A  modification 
is  electrolytic  action,  which  also  has  not  come  into  common  use. 

Disinfection.— The  bacterial  contents  of  sewage  or  sewage 
effluent  may  be  reduced  by  disinfection,  or  entirely  destroyed 
by  sterilization,  with  chemicals.  Generally  hypochlorite  or 
liquid  chlorine  is  used.  Disinfection  of  screened  or  settled 
sewage  may  be  utilized  to  accomplish  a  high  degree  of  bacterial 
removal,  either  as  an  emergency  measure,  or  to  avoid  the  cost 
of  more  expensive  installation,  which  may  not  be  as  efficient  where 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE  235 

the  destruction  of  tlje  bacteria  is  the  sole  purpose.  Complete 
destruction  of  the  bacteria  can  be  effected,  when  a  very  high 
standard  is  necessary,  by  sterilization  of  the  effluent  as  a  final 
treatment  after  filtration. 

Selection  of  Method  and  Site. — The  necessary  degree  and 
required  nature  of  treatment  and  the  type  of  plant  best  adapted 
to  accomplish  the  desired  results,  will  depend  in  any  given  in- 
stance upon  what  is  required  to  prevent  nuisance  or  contamina- 
tion, as  the  case  may  be,  and  upon  considerations  of  cost  with 
due  regard  to  physical  requirements  or  limitations  imposed. 
The  degree  and  nature  of  treatment  which  may  be  required 
varies  greatly;  there  is  a  certain  latitude  in  the  choice  of  type  or 
method  to  secure  a  given  desired  result,  and  the  adaptability 
of  the  various  methods  and  types  of  installation  varies  with 
conditions. 

Studies  Required. — It  therefore  follows  that  before  the  method 
and  type  is  decided  upon  and  the  site  selected,  there  must  be  a 
careful  investigation  of  the  various  factors  and  comparative 
studies  of  alternative  methods.  The  following  items  will 
generally  be  included  in  such  an  investigation : 

(o)  Character,  quantity  and  condition  of  the  sewage,  the  nature  of 
the  treatment  required,  and  the  extent  to  which  it  should  be  carried  to 
prevent  nuisance  or  contamination. 

(b)  Cost  of  construction,  operation  and  upkeep. 

(c)  Area,  cost  and  availability  of  sites  possessing  the  necessary  physi- 
cal requirements  of  size,  available  head  or  fall,  and  topography. 

(d)  Possibility  of  offense  in  the  vicinity  of  the  plant. 

(e)  Adaptability  of  immediate  installation  to  possible  future  require- 
ments as  to  capacity,  or  standards  of  treatment. 

Screening  or  Tankage. — Where  the  object  sought  is  the  avoid- 
ance of  local  nuisance  in  the  vicinity  of  the  outlet  or  minimiza- 
tion of  general  nuisance  in  the  water  course,  such  as  that  arising 
from  floating  matter  or  deposits,  either  fine  screening  or  tank 
treatment  will  generally  suffice.  Fine  screening  is  neither  as  ef- 
fective as  tank  treatment,  nor  as  economical  in  the  small  units 
usually  required  in  industrial  housing  projects.  Adoption  of 
some  type  of  tank  will  generally  be  indicated. 

One  story  tanks  will  generally  be  used,  unless  there  is  proba- 
bility that  filtration  will  later  be  required,  in  which  case  considera- 
tion should  be  given  to  two  story  tanks,  such  as  the  Inihoff 
tank.     The  conditions  under  which  sludge  is  to  be  disposed  of 


236  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

will  be  a  further  determining  factor  in  selecting  the  design  of  the 
tank,  as  some  tanks  produce  a  less  offensive  sludge  than  others. 
Proximity  of  the  tank  to  dwellings,  the  permanency  of  the  plant 
and  other  elements  also  must  be  considered. 

Filtration. — Removal  of  the  settling  solids  by  fine  screening  or 
in  tanks  will  not  suffice  in  cases  where  the  body  of  water  does  not 
have  sufficient  capacity  to  handle  the  effluent  without  conditions 
of  general  nuisance  obtaining  during  all  or  part  of  the  year,  or 
when  too  severe  a  load  would  be  imposed  upon  the  water  purifi- 
cation plants.  In  such  cases,  a  stable  effluent  will  be  required, 
and  filtration  will  be  necessary.  This  will  generally  lead  to  the 
adoption  of  trickling  filters,  which  being  operated  at  a  higher 
rate  require  less  space  than  either  contact  beds  or  sand  filters. 
If  sufficient  fall  is  available  for  their  operation,  or  if  pumping  must 
in  any  event  be  resorted  to,  the  trickling  filter  will  be  generally 
applicable,  unless  the  site  is  not  sufficiently  removed  from  dwell- 
ings. In  the  latter  case  the  contact  beds  may  be  preferable, 
even  though  costing  more. 

Intermittent  sand  filtration  will  occasionally  be  found  economi- 
cal for  small  installations,  where  land  is  comparatively  cheap  and 
the  proper  quality  of  sand  is  readily  available,  but  the  large  area 
required  and  the  cost  of  construction  will  generally  exclude  this 
type  for  larger  installations.  Where  the  plant  must  be  built  in 
proximity  to  dwellings,  the  contact  bed  may  be  preferred  here 
also,  owing  to  comparative  freedom  from  odors  and  the  fly 
nuisance. 

The  filtration  process  must  be  preceded  by  fine  screening  or 
tank  treatment  and  where  discoloration  or  suspended  matter  is 
to  be  avoided  in  the  water  course,  must  be  followed  by  settling. 
If  a  more  complete  removal  of  organic  matter  and  suspended 
solids  is  necessary  so  as  to  produce  a  very  clear  effluent  of 
high  standard,  secondary  treatment  by  filtration,  followed  by 
final  settling,  may  be  adopted. 

Sterilization. — When  contamination  of  water  supplies  is  a  fac- 
tor, complete  removal  of  bacteria  will  be  necessary.  This  may 
be  practically  accomplished  by  secondary  filtration  and  final 
settling,  but  the  expense  of  such  works  for  this  purpose,  where 
complete  removal  of  the  bacteria  is  the  primary  requirement, 
will  be  much  greater  than  that  of  sterilization  with  chemicals, 
which  further  will  be  more  dependable  and  effective.  There  will 
also  be  cases  where  tank  treatment,  supplemented  by  disinfec- 


SE  WERA  GE  .  1 N 1)  Oh' A I N .  IGE  237 

tion,  while  not  producing  a  stable  effluent,  and  not  insuring  the 
complete  removal  of  the  bacteria,  will  produce  an  effluent  which 
will  neither  impose  too  heavy  a  burden  upon  the  water  course, 
nor  endanger  water  supplies  which  are  properly  protected  by 
purification. 

Location. — The  location  of  sewage  treatment  plants,  particularly 
where  they  include  trickling  filters,  in  proximity  to  buildings  is  to 
be  avoided;  in  any  case,  the  plant  should  not  be  within  500  ft. 
of  property  to  be  used  for  building  purposes.  It  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that  there  is  a  popular  prejudice  against  sewage  treatment 
plants,  and  whether  such  objections  be  fancied  or  real,  every  effort 
should  be  made  to  isolate  the  plant.  The  depreciation  of  prop- 
erty may  well  offset  the  cost  of  additional  outfall  construction 
necessary  to  reach  a  more  distant  site.  Small  tank  installations, 
properly  screened,  may  be  located,  if  necessary,  within  not  less 
than  500  ft.  of  dwellings,  but  the  possibility  of  nuisance  from 
odors  and  flies  makes  it  advisable  to  locate  trickling  filters  at 
least  1,000  ft.  from  dwellings. 

The  plant  should  be  designed  in  units  so  as  to  afford  flexibility 
in  operation  and  to  permit  of  extensions  in  the  future.  In  this 
connection  provision  must  be  made  for  throwing  part  of  the  plant 
out  of  operation  for  repairs  or  alterations,  and  to  take  care  of 
varying  and  fluctuating  conditions  of  sewage  flow  and  operating 
conditions. 

CONTRACT  PLANS  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

Contract  Plans. — The  contract  plans  should  consists  of  a  gen- 
eral plan  showing  the  location  of  the  system  in  its  entirety,  and 
a  set  of  drawings  of  uniform  scale  and  size,  each  covering  a  sec- 
tion of  a  sewer  in  plan  and  profile.  A  scale  of  40  or  50  ft.  per  inch 
for  horizontal,  and  of  4  or  5  ft.  per  inch  for  vertical  scale, 
is  recommended  for  usual  conditions.  The  stationing  should  be 
carried  across  the  sheet  from  left  to  right  and  should  designate  all 
changes  in  alignment  and  grade. 

The  plans  should  show  the  street  and  curb  lines,  street  car 
tracks,  existing  substructures  where  there  is  any  question  of  in- 
terference, the  center  line  of  the  sewer,  the  offset  from  the  curb, 
and  the  geometry  of  the  alignment.  The  profile,  on  the  distorted 
scale,  should  show  the  surface  of  the  ground  on  the  center  line 
of  the  sewer,  and  the  established  or  finished  grades  of  the  street, 
usually  for  convenience,  taken  on  the  top  of  curb. 


238  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Unless  the  character  of  the  soil  can  be  easily  determined,  test 
pits  should  be  sunk  along  the  line  of  the  sewer  at  intervals  and 
the  location  and  character  of  material  excavated  should  be  shown 
on  the  contract  plan.  Samples  of  the  materials  excavated  should 
further  be  taken  and  made  available  for  prospective  bidders. 
There  should,  however,  be  a  statement  in  the  contract  to  the  effect 
that  while  the  results  of  the  test  pit  excavations  are  furnished  for 
information,  the  owner  does  not  guarantee  the  actual  conditions  to 
be  as  shown  on  the  plans. 

The  contract  plans  should  further  show  in  profile  the  flow  and 
invert  line  of  the  sewer,  location  of  manholes,  the  elevations  on 
the  invert  of  the  sewer,  particularly  at  grade  points  and  at 
manholes;  also  the  elevation  at  which  the  casting  of  manhole 
covers  is  to  be  set.  The  location  and  elevation  of  connecting 
sewers  should  likewise  be  shown,  while  location  of  the  "Y's"  for 
house  connections  need  be  shown  in  plan  only,  and  likewise 
catch  basin  and  storm  inlet  connections. 

The  size  of  the  sewer  to  be  constructed  should  be  plainly  in- 
dicated and  any  special  or  incidental  construction  noted  on 
the  contract  plans,  and  unless  covered  clearly  and  fully  in  the 
specifications,  the  method  of  paying  for  such  accessory  or  addi- 
tional work,  should  be  indicated  in  plain  terms  on  the  contract 
plans.  Such  items  will  include  railroad  crossings,  special  founda- 
tions, removal  of  existing  and  obstructing  surface  or  subsurface 
structures,  and  any  other  work  not  implicitly  included  in  the  work 
to  be  done  and  the  materials  furnished  per  lineal  foot  of  sewer, 
which  is  the  usual  basis  of  measurement  for  payment. 

The  location  of  all  catch  basins,  storm  inlets,  manholes  and 
appurtenant  structures  should  be  shown  likewise  in  plan.  It  is 
also  usual  to  show  the  type  of  pavement  if  there  be  an  existing 
pavement  to  be  removed  and  replaced. 

Where  there  is  participation  by  municipalities,  or  where  the 
cost  is  to  be  assessed  upon  the  abutting  property  owners,  the 
contract  plans  should  be  drawn  in  conformity  with  existing 
regulations. 

Care  should  be  exercised  in  the  completeness  and  accuracy  of 
the  preparation  of  contract  plans,  with  a  view  of  their  later 
utilization  as  record  plans,  after  having  incorporated  such 
changes  as  have  been  made  in  actual  construction. 

Specifications. — Materials  of  Construction. — Terra  cotta  pipe 
is  used  for  all  diameters  up  to  30  inches.     The  standard  sizes 


SEWERAGE  AND  DRAINAGE  239 

are  as  follows:  5-in.,  6-in.,  8-in.,  10-in.,  12-in.,  15-in.,  18-in., 
20-in.,  24-in.,  27-in.,  30-in.,  33-in.,  and  36-in.  Where  36-in. 
terra  cotta  pipe  is  used  it  is  usual  to  protect  it  with  a  reinforce- 
ment of  concrete,  unless  there  is  little  probability  of  damage  by 
traffic. 

Reinforced  concrete  pipe  is  used  for  sections  of  24  in.  or  larger 
in  diameter,  particularly  sizes  in  excess  of  30  in.  Such  pipe  may 
be  made  on  the  site  of  the  work  where  the  size  of  the  job  war- 
rants, or  may  be  shipped  from  the  place  of  manufacture.  Mono- 
lithic concrete  or  brick  masonry  construction  is  also  used  for 
diameters  in  excess  of  30  inches.  Such  construction  is  neces- 
sary where  reinforced  concrete  pipe  of  required  diameter  and 
suitable  cross-sections  cannot  be  obtained  at  reasonable  cost. 
Segmental  terracotta  block  is  also  used  for  large  sizes. 

General  Outline. — The  specifications  should  clearly  and  defi- 
nitely state  the  requirements  and  dimensions  for  each  type  of 
sewer  and  kind  of  construction.  In  each  case  there  should  be 
sections  relating  to  the  woik  included  in  the  contract  price,  and 
specifications  for  the  materials,  workmanship,  construction, 
incidental  work,  testing,  measurement  and  payment.  When  the 
work  is  to  be  performed  on  the  fixed  price  basis,  there  should  be 
a  definite  division  of  the  contract  into  items  of  work,  so  that 
measurement  and  payment  may  be  simplified.  Ordinary  items 
will  be  included  for  the  following: 

Furnishing  materials  and  laying  or  constructing  each  size  and  type 
of  sewer;  price  per  lineal  foot. 

Excavation  and  backfilling;  price  per  cubic  yard;  (sometimes  included 
in  the  price  bid  for  laying  the  sewer). 

House  connections;  price  per  lineal  foot  including  specials. 

Additional  branches  or  specials;  price  for  each. 

Manholes,  catch  basins,  and  other  appurtenances;  price  for  each. 

Sewer  castings;  price  per  pound. 

Special  foundations;  price  dependent  on  type  of  construction. 

Street  repaving;  price  per  square  yard. 

Sheeting  and  bracing  left  in  place  when  ordered  by  owner;  price  per 

M.  ft.  B.M. 

Special  items  as  railroad  crossings,  tunnel  construction,  junction 
chambers,  etc.;  price  either  lump  sum  or  unit. 

The  specification  will  be  simplified  by  the  inclusion  of  general 
clauses  covering  materials  and  construction  included  in  the 
several  items. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
COLLECTION  AND  DISPOSAL  OF  TOWN  WASTES 

Classification,  Character  and  Quantities  of  Municipal 
Wastes — Methods  of  Collection — Final  Disposal  of 
Wastes — Summary  and  Conclusions 

Introduction. — Considering  all  of  the  factors  attending  the 
problem  of  location,  construction,  housing  and  administration 
of  an  industrial  or  residential  community  or  town,  the  problem 
of  final  disposal  of  all  the  worthless  and  dangerous  material  that  is 
produced  is  one  of  considerable  importance  and  should  receive 
careful  consideration. 

The  question  as  to  the  effect  upon  the  health  of  the  public, 
caused  by  imperfect  methods  of  collection  of  garbage  and  re- 
fuse, is  one  that  has  been  frequently  debated,  and  is  still  an 
open  problem  to  be  solved  in  many  of-  its  aspects.  But  there 
can  be  no  doubt  that  the  comfort,  convenience  and  happiness 
of  any  community  depends  to  a  large  extent  upon  the  removal 
of  worthless,  and  exhausted  matter.  These  have  little  or  no 
value  in  themselves,  but  by  accumulation  become  annoying  and 
offensive  and,  if  allowed  to  remain  in  the  household,  may 
become  positively  threatening  and  dangerous  to  health. 

This  subject  is  presented  with  reference  to  the  requirements  of 
industrial  and  residential  towns,  but  the  compilation  and  classi- 
fication figures  of  quantities,  costs  and  other  factors  may  apply 
equally  well  to  the  larger  settled  municipalities  of  the  third  and 
fourth  classes  of  population,  where  this  question  is  one  for  present 
or  future  consideration. 

CLASSIFICATION,  CHARACTER  AND  QUANTITIES  OF  MUNICIPAL 

WASTES 

For  the  purpose  of  this  inquiry  there  are  five  classes  of  wastes 
to  be  dealt  with.  These  are:  Garbage,  Rubbish,  Refuse,  Ashes, 
and  Street  Sweepings. 

Garbage.' — Garbage  consists  of  waste  of  vegetable  and  animal 
origin,  resulting  from  the  manufacture  or  preparation  of  human 

240 


COLLECTION  AND  DISPOSAL  OF  TOWN  WASTES        241 


food  in  households,  and  from  public  and  private  buildings.  It  is 
putrescible  in  character,  being  composed  of  organic  substances 
which  permit  decay  and  fermentation,  more  or  less  rapid  accord- 
ing to  surrounding  conditions. 

Table  34.— Composition  of  Average  Garbage  as  Collected 

Moisture  contained,  and  free  water 70  Per  vvni' 

Solids,  vegetable  and  animal 2*  Pe*  cent. 

Bones,  grease  and  fats 

Foreign  matters 


3  per  cent. 


T      ,  100  per  cent. 

Average  weight  per'  cubic  foot 46  to  50  pounds 

Average  weight  per  cubic  yard 1,250  to  1,350  pounds 

Quantity  per  capita  per  day 0 . 4  to  0 . 5  pounds  m  winter 

0.7  to  0.8  pounds  in  summer 

Table  35.— Monthly    Variations,  in  Percentages,   of  Garbage  Pro- 
duced Annually' 
(Data  from  Two  Large  Cities) 


January . . . 
February . . 

March 

April 

May 

June 

July 

August 

September. 
October. . . 
November . 
December . 

Total. 


Cincinnati 


5.3 

5.2 

5.2 

6.9 

6.8 

9.1 

12.4 

12.1 

13.8 

8.2 

7.5 

7.5 

100.0 


Borough  of 

Richmond 

(N.  Y.) 


5.7 
3.7 

5.2 

7.7 
8.1 


8.7 

9.2 

10.6 

12.5 

11.3 

9.2 


100.0 


i  Featherston:  Proc.  2nd  Pan-Am.  Sc.  Cong.  1915-1916. 

The  figures  in  the  two  tables  above  represent  the  character  and 
quantities  of  northern  communities  under  normal  conditions. 
Due  allowance  must  be  made  for  exceptional  conditions. 

Rubbish.— This  comprises  the  discarded  and  worn-out  articles 
and  matters  from  households,  including  paper  of  all  grades,  rags, 
wood,  boxes,  mattresses,  broken  furniture,  shoes,  tin  cans,  metal 

16 


242  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

scraps,  bottles  or  glass,  etc.  The  largest  proportion  is  combus- 
tible and  when  burned  in  incinerating  plants  takes  the  place  of 
considerable  amounts  of  other  fuel.  As  rubbish  may  contain  the 
germs  of  certain  diseases,  it  should  be  destroyed  or  carefully 
sorted  under  sanitary  conditions. 

Revenue  may  be  obtained  from  the  sale  of  marketable  por- 
tions, when  the  quantities  are  large  enough  to  repay  costs  of 
sorting  and  baling. 

Rubbish  varies  in  weight,  as  affected  by  local  conditions.  The 
average  weight  per  cubic  yard  in  Boston  is  160  pounds;  in  New 
York,  143  pounds;  in  Buffalo,  215  pounds;  in  Chicago  and  Mil- 
waukee about  175  pounds.  The  average  weight  is  thus  six  to 
seven  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

Technical  analyses  of  rubbish  have  been  made  in  several  of  the 
larger  cities,  with  varying  results.  The  following  table,  com- 
piled from  the  Boston  Refuse  Station  figures,  represents  the 
percentage  of  marketable  parts  in  that  city  in  1906. 

Table  36. — Percentage  of  Saleable  Portions  in  One  Hundred  Parts 
op  Refuse  Collections1 

Paper,  six  different  grades 74 . 5 

Rags,  clothing,  bagging,  twine 12 . 2 

Carpets,  four  grades 3.3 

Bottles,  common  and  proprietary 2.5 

Metals,  iron,  brass,  lead  and  zinc 2.1 

Tin,  all  sizes  and  kinds 1.4 

Leather,  shoes  and  scraps 1.9 

Rubber,  shoes,  hose  and  mats 0.2 

Barrels,    whole 1.4 

Other  material 0.5 


100.0 


Refuse. — The  refuse  produced  in  factories  and  manufacturing 
buildings  comprises  many  kinds  of  worthless  matters  and  does  not 
usually  come  under  the  charge  or  control  of  municipalities,  un- 
less there  be  nuisance  or  complaints  caused  by  imperfect  methods 
of  disposal,  offensive  to  the  public.  When  these  wastes  are  liquid 
or  semi-liquid  in  character,  or  of  large  volumes,  their  disposal  is  a 
matter  for  attention  of  Health  Boards  under  the  laws  of  the  State. 
As  a  rule  all  refuse  matters  from  private  trade  and  manufacturing 
companies  are  disposed  of  at  the  plant  where  accumulated  and  at 

1  MOrse:  Collection  and  Disposal  of  Municipal  Waste. 


COLLECTION  AND  DISPOSAL  OF  TOWN  WASTES        243 


the  expense  of  the  company.  When  incineration  is  the  town 
method  of  disposal,  many  forms  of  trade  waste  are  destroyed  by 
arrangement  with  the  town  authorities. 

Ashes.— This  is  the  fuel  waste  from  houses  where  wood,  coke 
or  coal  is  used,  and  does  not  include  ashes  from  steam  boilers 
or  private  manufacturing  plants.  Ashes  usually  contain  some 
unburned  coal,  besides  cinders,  slag  and  dust.  It  is  inorganic, 
and  not  offensive  in  handling  except  for  fine  dust.  It  generally 
can  be  allowed  to  accumulate  without  nuisance,  if  stored  with 
care,  and  removed  less  frequently  than  garbage  or  rubbish. 

The  weight  of  ashes  per  cubic  yard  varies  according  to  local 
conditions  from  1,050  pounds  to  1,350  pounds.  This  is  from 
40  to  50  pounds  per  cubic  foot. 

Street  Sweepings.— The  cleaning  of  the  streets  of  a  town  is  not 
usually  considered  in  connection  with  waste  collection,  but  there 
may  be  instances  where  street  sweepings  and  refuse  can  profit- 
ably be  made  a  part  of  the  general  collection  and  disposal 
system.  Sweepings  include  all  kinds  of  miscellaneous  matters 
that  cannot  be  carried  off  by  the  sewers.  They  will  average  50 
per  cent,  of  sand,  dirt,  powdered  stone  and  practically  50  per 
cent,  of  manure  and  horse  droppings  and  other  organic  refuse, 
although  the  latter  is  becoming  less  with  the  growth  in  use  of 
automobiles. 

Table  37.— Chemical  Analyses  of   Dry  Composite   Samples  op  Gar- 
bage, Rubbish  and  Cinders' 
(In  Percentages  by  Weight) 


Constituents 


Carbon 

Hydrogen 

Nitrogen 

Oxygen 

Silica 

Iron  oxide  and  alumina.  . 

Lime 

Magnesia 

Phosphoric  acid 

Carbonic  acid 

Lead 

Tin 

Alkali  and  undetermined 


Garbage 


43.0 
6.2 
3.7 
27.7 
7.6 
0.4 
4.3 
0.3 
1.5 
0.6 
0.2 
Sulphides 
4.5 


Rubbish 


Cinders 


42.4 
6.0 
3.4 

33.5 
6.5 
2.0 
2.3 
0.6 
0  1 
1.5 
0.5 

Trace 
1.2 


0.8 

0.6 

2.4 

30 . 0 

9.0 

1.2 

Trace 

None 

None 

Trace 

Trace 

0.3 


1  Morse:   Collection  and  Disposal  of  Municipal  Waste 


244 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


When  dried  in  fine  weather  and  taken  up  by  the  wind,  street 
sweepings  are  a  nuisance  to  the  public  and  a  positive  injury  to 
health  and  property.  It  is  claimed  that  the  increase  in  catarrhal 
diseases  at  such  times  is  noticeably  above  the  average.  Sweep- 
ings have  some  value  for  land  fertilization  where  the  cost  of  trans- 
portation is  not  too  great;  the  value  is  now  decreasing  with  the 
lessened  use  of  horses. 


bU 

x 

\ 

\ 

^,-' 

"**. 

s* 

\o 

40 

c 

o 

Na 

v.. 

\ 

/ 
1 

/ 
/ 

+- 

/ 

\ 

<u 

\ 

/ 

\ 

-A     1 

o 

«J  30 

5 

-1- 

o 

i      \ 

1 

\  / 

K 

\ 

N 

if 

\l 

f 

, 

\ 
v 

0) 

/  \ 

""~». 

X 

— — 

\7 

\ 

c 

/ 

} 

01 

/ 

0> 

Q. 

/ 
/ 

^,-""' 

'"*•••> — 

10 

i 

■^. 

/  \ 

X 







.„^«^: 

.-/^ 

A — 
\ 

fcfcfo 

...     Rubbish 

0 

! 

V 

Clinker 

<d    "      . 

a 

•^y 

o 

y> 

5.            -t 

> 

j           c 

Fig.  38. — Monthly  variations  in  the  quantity  of  various  municipal  wastes. 


Trade  refuse  from  building  operations,  earth  excavations,  de- 
bris from  buildings,  or  other  construction  work,  is  not  a  part  of 
the  municipal  obligation,  but  should  be  disposed  of  at  the  expense 
of  the  constructor. 

Chemical  Composition. — A  chemical  analysis  of  dry  samples 
of  the  three  classes  of  waste  is  given  in  Table  37.. 

Quantities.' — The  quantities  of  all  wastes  vary  with  the  char- 
acter of  population  and  the  use  of  solid  or  gaseous  fuels.  Where 
the  heating  is  by  natural  gas  or  cooking  by  this  or  artificial  gas 
in  summer,  the  quantity  of  rubbish  is  correspondingly  greater. 
In  towns  using  natural  gas,  the  volume  of  rubbish  far  exceeds 
the  garbage  and  is  of  greater  weight. 

There  is  also  a  wide  variation  in  quantity  during  the  year, 
due  to  seasonal  changes.     The  monthly  variations,  by  percent- 


COLLECTION'  AND  DISPOSAL  OF  TOWN  WASTES        245 

ages  of  the  different  classes  of  household  wastes,  with  sub- 
divisions of  the  classes  is  shown  in  Fig.  38.  This  is  for  a 
northern  city  with  a  population  of  30,000. 

The  quantities  of  street  sweepings  depend  upon  the  character 
of  the  streets  and  roads.  From  the  usual  street  or  dirt  road, 
though  packed  and  rolled,  the  quantity  is  largest,  and  less  from 
brick  paved  and  macadamized  or  asphalt  pavings.  The  increas- 
ing use  of  auto  vehicles  reduces  the  amounts  of  street  refuse*. 
Tree  leaves,  branches  and  garden  refuse  sometimes  form  a  part 
of  this  waste.  The  approximate  weight  of  street  sweepings  is 
from  1,000  to  1,250  lbs.  per  cubic  yard,  an  average  cart-load, 
•  13^  cu.  yd.,  weighing  1,500  pounds. 

METHODS  OF  COLLECTION 

Location  of  Disposal  Station. — The  means  of  collection  of  the 
various  classes  of  wastes  are  governed  somewhat  by  other  factors. 
Location  of  proposed  disposal  or  loading  station;  routes  of  travel 
in  town  roads;  proximity  to  that  section  of  the  town  of  least 
property  value;  and  location  with  reference  to  possible  present 
or  future  manufacturing  or  industrial  plants,  are  all  factors 
which  come  into  consideration. 

The  general  layout  of  the  town  should  include  a  location  for  a 
waste  disposal  plant,  where  the  largest  number  of  useful  purposes 
can  be  served.  Hence,  when  this  point  is  fixed,  the  collection 
methods  should  be  made  to  conform  to  the  necessary  conditions 
with  the  least  expenditure  of  time  and  money. 

Separate  or  Combined  Collection. — The  method  of  collection 
adopted  will  depend  somewhat  upon  conditions  that  cannot  be 
definitely  determined  in  advance.  The  general  layout  of  streets 
and  roads,  distances  to  be  traveled  in  transportation,  location 
of  place  of  final  disposition,  general  character  of  population,  dis- 
position methods  by  one  or  another  of  the  four  different  systems, 
the  chances  for  recovery  and  sale  of  marketable  portions,  and 
the  possibility  of  heat  utilization  from  incineration  methods  are 
all  factors  which  enter  into  the  question  of  collection.  The 
best  method  can  only  be  finally  determined  when  definite  informa- 
tion is  available. 

The  combined  collection  means  the  mixing  of  all  classes  of 
refuse  in  one  load  without  separation.  This  is  possible  only 
when  the  mass  is  to  be  dumped  into  great  pits  or  cavities  for 
filling  ground,  or  when  the  combined  loads  are  to  be  destroyed 


246  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

by  high  temperature  destructors,  which  are  generally  too  costly 
for  equipment  and  maintenance.  Another  disposal  of  the 
combined  waste  is  the  conveyance  by  rail,  from  a  central  town 
loading  station,  to  some  point  where  it  can  be  used  for  filling 
ground  without  danger  or  nuisance. 

In  some  larger  cities  there  are  three  separations  of  all  house- 
hold waste,  garbage,  rubbish  and  ashes.  Each  separation  must 
have  its  own  particular  form  of  container,  vehicle,  or  wagon, 
and  attendants.  On  occasion  the  use  of  containers  may  be 
interchanged. 

When  garbage  is  separately  collected,  it  is  kept  apart  from 
other  wastes,  deposited  in  cans  of  capacity  of  5  to  10  gal.,  and 
removed  as  required  by  the  final  means  of  disposition.  When 
the  garbage  is  to  be  fed  to  animals  there  must  be  particular 
care  to  exclude  all  forms  of  waste  that  may  be  objectionable  or 
deleterious,  such  as  medicines,  strong  cleansing  compounds, 
fine  glass  or  bottles,  and  some  kinds  of  food  waste  that  decay 
and  ferment  rapidly.  The  burden  is  upon  the  housewife  whose 
assistance  in  this  method  is  absolutely  necessary.  In  a  similar 
manner  when  the  garbage  is  to  be  disposed  of  by  the  reduction 
process,  the  same  precaution  must  be  taken. 

When  the  final  disposal  is  to  be  made  by  incineration,  there 
can  be  a  mixture  of  garbage  and  small  quantities  of  combustible 
refuse  in  one  can,  but  the  amount  must  be  limited.  After  the 
preliminary  draining  of  the  surplus  water,  there  is  an  advantage 
in  using  paper  wrapping  before  putting  into  the  cans.  This 
prevents  the  fly  nuisance,  keeps  the  cans  clean,  and  makes  a 
better  and  quicker  collection  service.  Here  again  the  housewife 
must  cooperate  for  the  general  benefit  of  all. 

Garbage  Collection. — As  a  general  rule  the  garbage  is  collected 
separately  from  ashes  and  rubbish.  A  one-horse  cart  or  small 
motor  truck  of  l}i  cu.  yd.  capacity  is  in  common  use.  This  type 
of  vehicle  is  of  greater  service  for  all  general  purposes  of  collection 
and  for  the  use  also  by  other  departments  of  the  town  for  collec- 
tion of  street  sweepings  and  other  general  material. 

The  usual  form  is  a  steel  body  with  sloping  end,  placed  on 
a  frame.  This  is  mounted  on  a  pair  of  wheels,  which  permits 
easy  dumping,  and  covered  with  a  sectional  sheet  iron  cover. 
The  weight  of  the  cart  is  approximately  1,400  lb.  and  assum- 
ing that  the  average  weight  of  garbage  when  separately 
collected  is  1,250  lb.  per  cu.  yd.,  the  total  weight  of  a  completely 


COLLECTION  AND  DISPOSAL  OF  TOWN  WASTES        247 

filled  cart  would  be  3,300  lb.  On  level  ground  this  load  can  be 
easily  hauled  by  one  horse  and  the  cart  loaded  by  one  man. 

Rubbish  Collection. — It  is  difficult  to  make  a  collection  of 
rubbish  and  garbage  in  the  same  cart  or  truck.  The  great 
volume  of  rubbish  occupies  so  large  a  space  that  the  garbage 
has  very  limited  room.  In  some  localities  a  longer  body  is  used 
and  a  division  made  for  garbage  and  refuse.  But  this  is  not  a 
suitable  method  of  handling. 

The  better  method  of  collecting  is  by  a  wagon  especially 
adapted  for  the  purpose,  about  10  ft.  long  and  of  the  usual  width, 
with  high  latticed  sides,  giving  a  capacity  of  from  5  to  7  cu.  yd. 
per  load.  This  is  easily  handled  and  loaded  by  one  man.  It 
may  be  discharged  by  special  devices,  such  as  a  chain  or  rope 
being  placed  on  the  bottom  of  the  wagon,  which  is  attached 
to  an  overhead  support,  and  when  the  team  is  started  up  the 
whole  load  is  completely  rolled  out  of  the  wagon. 

Ash  Collection. — In  most  places  it  is  usual  to  use  a  type  of 
rubbish  cart  with  closed  sides  for  the  collection  of  ashes.  One 
objection  to  its  use  is  the  great  height  to  which  the  can  must  be 
lifted  for  emptying  into  the  cart.  The  strain  upon  the  collector 
is  too  severe  to  secure  economical  service. 

A  double  horse  wagon  of  the  type  described  for  garbage,  but 
of  a  capacity  of  3  cu.  yd.,  or  motor  truck,  is  more  economical 
for  ash  collection.  All  ash  wagons  should  be  provided  with 
covers  to  prevent  fine  ash  and  dust  from  being  blown  out. 

Can  System. — In  some  of  the  higher  class  residential  towns 
the  garbage  collection,  mixed  with  the  rubbish,  is  done  by  what 
is  known  as  the  can  system.  Each  householder  is  required  to 
produce  and  keep  in  a  convenient  place  a  can  of  about  ten  gallons 
capacity,  with  a  tight-fitting  cover,  into  which  all  garbage  and 
a  large  portion  of  the  combustible  refuse  is  placed.  The  town 
provides  double-deck  wagons,  each  having  a  capacity  of  about 
seventy-two  cans,  and  attended  by  one  man.  The  can  is  re- 
moved from  the  household,  placed  on  the  wagon,  and  another 
clean,  sterilized  can  put  in  its  place. 

The  advantage  of  this  method  is  the  almost  complete  elimina- 
tion of  flies  and  odors,  and,  if  the  garbage  is  wrapped  in  paper 
for  the  purpose  of  incineration,  there  is  very  great  saving  in 
time  and  fuel  in  the  process  of  incineration.  In  a  town  of  8,000 
people  where  this  method  has  been  in  use  for  some  years,  and 
where  the  character  of  the   population   is  entirely  residential, 


248  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

without  any  factories,  it  has  been  found  entirely  serviceable. 
The  collections  are  made  once  a  week  in  winter  and  twice  a 
week  in  summer,  except  for  hotels  and  hospitals,  where  collec- 
tions are  made  daily. 

Contract  versus  Municipal  Service. — There  are  four  systems 
of  collection,  each  of  which  has  certain  advantages  in  point  of 
cheapness,  but  all  of  which  are  not  of  equal  value  from  a  sanitary 
point  of  view. 

Individual  Service. — By  this  system  every  householder  takes 
care  of  his  own  waste  in  his  own  way,  with  the  least  possible 
trouble  and  cost;  with  no  responsibility  for  after  results,  and 
with  the  only  purpose  of  getting  it  off  his  premises  in  the  shortest 
time  possible.  When  the  accumulation  is  so  great  as  to  become 
troublesome,  a  cartman  is  hired  to  take  away  the  wastes. 

The  rubbish  is  cleared  away  in  the  annual  spring  cleaning, 
and  from  time  to  time  as  required.  Inorganic  matter  is  cleared 
away  as  accumulation  requires.  The  retention  of  refuse  until 
it  becomes  objectionable  or  offensive  results  in  a  greater  expendi- 
ture when  it  is  finally  removed  than  if  it  were  done  by  regulation 
of  the  town  authorities. 

License  System. — In  this  case  a  number  of  cartmen  are  licensed 
to  make  the  collections,  upon  payment  of  a  small  registration 
fee  to  the  town.  A  route  is  established  and  a  certain  number  of 
patrons  are  secured  who  are  fairly  well  looked  after.  The  dump- 
ing or  final  disposal  of  the  refuse  must  be  upon  the  collector's 
property,  or  at  a  place  which  is  designated  by  the  town. 

The  advantage  is  that  the  collectors,  being  known,  can  be 
detected  if  there  is  any  infringement  on  sanitary  regulations. 
But  there  is  no  remedy  for  the  complaints  of  the  householder, 
on  the  score  of  infrequent  or  bad  collection  service,  or  overcharge 
for  the  work.  The  cost  as  a  rule  is  more  than  double  the  amount 
that  would  be  paid  by  the  town  if  it  were  done  under  the 
municipal  methods  of  collection. 

'Contract  System. — On  this  basis  the  city  advertises  for  bids  for 
collection  of  the  whole  or  a  part  of  the  waste.  This  is  a  most 
convenient  way  for  the  authorities  and  an  improvement  over 
the  license  system,  but  it  has  some  disadvantages  and  as  a  whole 
is  less  satisfactory  than  a  municipal  method.  The  contractor  is 
often  compelled  by  competition  to  accept  the  work  at  too  small 
a  margin  of  profit;  thus  he  gives  poor  service  and  causes  endless 
complaints. 


COLLECTION  AND  DISPOSAL  OF  TOWN  WASTES        249 

The  equipment  and  employees  arc  not  always  of  the  highest 
class.  The  contract  is  usually  for  a  short  period.  There  is 
limited  responsibility,  and  the  purpose  to  do  as  little  as  possible 
at  the  smallest  cost  frequently  prevails.  There  must  be  main- 
tained a  vigilant  oversight  by  the  city  authorities,  and  frequent 
inspections  of  the  equipment,  methods  of  work  and  of  the  final 
disposal  of  the  waste. 

The  householder  benefits  by  a  systematic  collection  at  a  some- 
what lower  cost,  and  if  the  work  is  clone  in  a  satisfactory  manner, 
the  city  is  relieved  of  a  burden  which  it  is  often  unwilling  to 
accept.  This  is  the  system  employed  by  a  large  number  of 
municipalities,  and  may  be  said  to  be  a  typical  American  system 
of  collection. 

Municipal  Service.— In  this  case  the  city  provides  and  main- 
tains its  own  equipment  and  employees.  This  is  usually  at  a 
somewhat  greater  cost  than  by  the  contract  system,  but,  by 
efficient  superintendence,  the  results  are  far  more  satisfactory. 
The  responsibility  is  upon  the  city's  designated  official,  and  by 
him  distributed  through  his  associates,  so  that  poor  work  can 
be  noted  and  corrected  without  loss  of  time.  The  equipment 
and  employees  may  also  be  used  in  other  departments  of  the 
municipal  service,  thus  dividing  the  expense.  The  whole  force, 
with  a  good  executive,  if  kept  from  political  interference,  can  be 
brought  to  a  high  state  of  efficiency  and  will  take  pride  in  the 
work. 

The  growth  of  municipal  service  in  the  collection  of  wastes  is 
very  marked  in  the  past  five  years,  due,  perhaps,  to  the  commis- 
sion form  of  city  government.  The  work  has  thus  been  kept 
more  free  from  political  control,  and  more  directly  under  the 
observation  of  the  commissioner  in  charge. 

Comparative  Cost. — The  data,  for  tabulating  the  relative  costs 
of  collection  service  by  one  or  the  other  methods  referred  to,  is 
difficult  to  obtain  and  not  always  reliable.  A  comparison  was 
made  some  years  ago  concerning  the  cost  of  garbage  collections  by 
the  contract  and  by  municipal  service.  In  15  cities  of  the  first, 
second  and  third  classes,  this  cost  by  contract  was  twenty  cents 
per  capita  per  annum;  in  15  cities  of  the  same  classes,  with 
approximately  the  same  population,  where  the  collections  were 
made  by  municipal  service,  the  cost  was  twenty-five  to  thirty 
cents  per  capita  per  annum.  Those  should  now  be  revised, 
owing  to  increased  prices  of  labor  and  material,  and  the  figures 


250  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

should  probably  be  thirty-five  to  forty  cents  for  contract  and 
forty-five  to  fifty  cents  for  municipal  service. 

FINAL  DISPOSAL  OF  WASTES 

Whatever  method  may  be  ultimately  adopted  by  the  town  for 
collection  of  waste,  the  matter  of  final  disposition  should  receive 
careful  consideration  at  the  same  time,  as  each  affects  the  other. 
A  thorough  and  accurate  study  should  be  made  of  all  local  condi- 
tions in  each  individual  case.  The  fact  that  there  is  a  continual 
agitation  in  a  large  number  of  municipalities  and  communities 
for  a  more  economical,  definite  and  better  method  of  waste 
disposal,  emphasizes  the  need  of  more  care  and  foresight. 

The  government  reports  for  1919  show  that  22  per  cent,  of  all 
third  class  cities  and  towns  in  Pennsylvania  were  contemplating 
changes  in  their  methods  of  garbage  disposal.  This  whole 
problem  of  collection  and  waste  disposal  should  be  treated  as  an 
engineering  question  like  other  municipal  subjects,  such  as  water, 
sewerage,  lighting,  etc.,  and  not  merely  as  a  minor  item  in  the 
administration  of  the  local  health  department. 

There  are  four  means  of  final  disposal  in  use,  each  of  which 
have  certain  advantages,  not  belonging  to  the  others;  but  also 
certain  unfavorable  conditions  are  unavoidable.  These  methods 
are:  Earth  Burial,  Feeding  to  Animals,  Reduction,  for  obtaining 
by-products,  and  Incineration,  complete  or  in  part.  The  last 
is  generally  applicable  to  all  classes  of  waste,  but  the  others  to 
the  disposal  of  garbage  only. 

Earth  Burial. — This  method  is  used  when  a  community  has  at 
its  command  an  area  of  ground  sufficient  to  receive  its  putrescible 
waste  for  a  period  of  years.  It  is  buried,  left  to  be  oxidized  and 
composted  by  earth  covering.  In  this  case  a  series  of  shallow 
pits,  or  trenches,  from  18  in.  to  2  ft.  deep  and  about  5  to  6  ft.  wide, 
are  excavated,  preferably  on  a  side  hill.  The  garbage  is  dumped 
and  thinly  spread,  to  an  average  depth  of  about  6  in.,  and  covered 
with  the  earth  of  the  excavation  of  the  preceding  day.  This 
process  is  repeated  from  day  to  day,  and  requires  a  very  consider- 
able extent  of  ground,  since  it  takes  from  nine  to  twenty-four 
months  for  the  soil  to  oxidize  and  assimilate  the  waste  before 
it  can  be  again  used. 

It  is  not  economical  to  employ  this  method  unless  there  is  a 
wide  area  of  unoccupied  ground  not  suitable  for  residences,  and 


COLLECTION  AND  DISPOSAL  OF  TOWN  WASTES        251 

not  valuable  for  farming.  It  is  the  cheapest  form  of  disposal 
and,  by  care  and  oversight  in  regulating  the  dumping  and  cover- 
ing, it  can  be  made  entirely  sanitary.  The  disadvantage  is  that 
in  the  winter  season  it  is  difficult  to  make  excavation  and  provide 
necessary  earth  for  covering.  Also  this  method  does  not  admit 
of  any  admixture  of  rubbish,  since  this  does  not  decay  so  readily 
and  occupies  more  room  than  garbage.  Burial  is  one  of  the 
methods  to  be  considered  when  cheapness  of  disposition  is  under 
consideration. 

Feeding  to  Animals. — At  the  outbreak  of  the  War,  the  United 
States  Government  found  that  its  food  supply  was  entirely 
inadequate  for  the  maintenance  of  its  own  troops  and  for  export 
to  the  allied  armies.  Thus  a  call  was  sent  out  urging  the  feeding 
of  garbage  to  hogs,  in  cases  where  it  would  not  interfere  with 
actual  comfort  and  health  of  the  people.  The  result  was  that  a 
large  number  of  persons  introduced  individual  hog  feeding  on 
their  own  premises,  without  regard  to  the  existing  ordinances 
against  this  practice  in  communities.  "Pigs  for  Patriotism  and 
Profit",  became  a  fad  and  fashion  that  lasted  only  through  one  ex- 
periment for  individuals.  But  it  had  the  advantage  of  demonstrat- 
ing that  there  was  a  very  great  waste  of  food  in  households  and 
that  there  is  some  value  in  garbage  when  collected  under  regula- 
tions and  fed  to  swine  under  observant  and  sanitary  control. 
Many  towns  contracted  with  individuals  for  the  disposal  of  the 
garbage  by  this  method,  and  some  of  the  largest  cities  of  the 
country  have  instituted  hog  feeding  on  a  scale  which  demands  the 
expenditure  of  large  sums  for  ground,  buildings,  and  operating 
expenses. 

There  is  an  undoubted  value  in  separated  garbage,  but  it 
implies  additional  trouble  to  the  householder,  in  that  it  must 
be  kept  apart  from  all  foreign  substances  and  delivered  at  regular, 
stated  intervals  before  fermentation  has  set  in.  A  town  may 
establish,  through  the  agency  of  a  private  contractor,  a  hog 
feeding  farm  and  by  this  method  receive  a  return  for  the  separated 
garbage,  which  can  be  used  to  defray  at  least  a  part  of  the  other 
expenses  of  collection  and  disposal.  When  the  garbage  is  sold 
by  a  town  for  feeding,  there  should  be  a  definite  understanding, 
as  a  part  of  the  contract,  as  to  the  methods  of  handling  and 
feeding,  care  of  hogs  and  prevention  of  disease,  and  sanitation 
in  building  construction  and  grounds.  All  of  these  points  were 
urged  and  enforced  by  the  United  Stales  Government  and  should 


252  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

now  be  followed  in  all  communities  where  garbage  is  sold  or 
given  for  feeding. 

Prices  for  garbage  depend  almost  entirely  upon  local  conditions. 
In  three  of  the  largest  cities  the  price  paid  per  ton  is  about  eight 
times  the  market  price  per  pound  for  hogs  on  the  hoof  in  Chicago. 
This  represents  about  $1.30  per  ton.  In  other  cities  the  price 
paid  is  from  fifty  to  sixty  cents  per  ton  for  separated,  clean  gar- 
bage. Many  of  the  New  England  towns  receive  a  very  consider- 
able sum  from  the  sale  of  garbage,  at  prices  running  from  $0.50 
to  $1.10  per  ton.  The  latest  government  report  shows  that  the 
prices  paid .  by  contractors  during  the  last  year  of  the  War  for 
the  garbage  from  the  camps  and  cantonments  was  about  one 
cent  per  pound.  This  was  unusual  and  was  due  to  the  better 
quality  and  cleaner  condition  of  the  garbage. 

In  considering  disposal  methods  for  any  community,  hog 
feeding  should  be  considered;  but  in  general  there  should  be 
five  to  eight  tons  per  day  to  make  this  method  worth  while  from 
a  financial  standpoint. 

Reduction. — This  is  the  'treatment  of  separated  garbage  by 
steam  in  closed  tanks,  for  the  separation  of  the  vegetable  and 
animal  oils  and  fats,  and  the  recovery  in  a  dry  condition  of  the 
residuum  for  use  as  a  constituent  of  fertilizers.  This  process 
to  be  successful,  requires  twenty-five  tons  and  upwards  per  day 
of  clean  garbage  unmixed  with  foreign  substances.  The  great 
expense  for  patented  machinery  and  special  apparatus,  the  cost 
of  upkeep  and  maintenance,  the  fluctuating  prices  for  the  prod- 
ucts, together  with  extreme  liability  for  explosions  and  fires 
from  dangerous  gaseous  compounds,  necessary  for  use,  make  this 
method  beyond  the  reach  of  any  except  the  larger  cities  of  the 
country,  or  those  having  a  population  of  50,000  or  more. 

With  few  exceptions  all  of  the  reduction  plants  of  the  country 
are  owned  or  controlled  by  strong  combinations  of  capital,  and 
carried  on  as  a  private  business  investment.  The  experimental 
smaller  plants  for  towns  of  the  third  and  fourth  classes  have  not 
been  found  satisfactory.  In  the  case  of  the  industrial  or  smaller 
residential  communities,  this  process  is  regarded  as  too  expensive 
for  consideration. 

Incineration. — There  is  no  form  of  refuse  material  that  fire 
will  consume  that  cannot  be  destroyed  in  properly  designed  and 
well  operated  incinerating  furnaces  with  economy  of  fuel  and 


COLLECTION  AND  DISPOSAL  OF  TOWN  WASTES        253 

labor  and  with  complete  secondary  combustion  of  smoke  fumes 
and  odors  from  burning  substances. 

Since  the  beginning  of  this  method  (in  1887)  there  have  been 
a  large  number  of  cremators,  incinerators,  and  destructors, 
patented  or  offered  for  use  of  municipalities.  Perfection  in 
design,  economy  in  construction  and  operation,  and  sanitary 
performance  have  been  claimed  for  each.  Many  have  failed 
for  various  reasons,  but  experimental  furnaces  are  still  being 
developed. 

Type  Required. — When  the  final  disposal  of  waste  is  to  be 
accomplished  by  incineration,  there  should  be  selected  a  type 
which  has  a  record  of  successful  use  under  all  conditions.  The 
construction  must  be  durable,  of  the  best  material,  with  a 
capacity  suited  to  present  and  future  conditions. 

The  furnace  must  be  capable  of  destroying  the  whole  output  of 
combustible  matters  and  a  large  proportion  of  ashes  and  street 
sweepings,  if  required,  in  a  given  time,  with  the  utmost  economy 
of  fuel  and  labor  and  without  causing  offensive  smoke,  odors 
or  fumes  of  combustion  in  the  plant  itself  or  the  surrounding 
neighborhood.  The  plant  must  be  arranged  to  receive  and  unload 
the  collection  wagons  without  delay,  and  must  have  convenient 
arrangements  for  separation  of  the  different  classes  of  waste 
for  subsequent  treatment,  if  this  is  required. 

Capacity. — This  will  depend  upon  the  present  and  anticipated 
future  population  and  also  upon  the  character  of  waste  to  be 
consumed.  The  design  should  be  of  the  best  approved  type, 
though  the  furnace  may  be  of  small  dimensions,  and  built  at  low 
cost  for  present  uses,  but  capable  of  addition  of  other  units  at 
relatively  small  expense. 

Beginning  with  an  industrial  town  of  500  population  and  a 
small,  inexpensive  incinerator,  the  same  design  and  methods  can 
be  extended  indefinitely  to  larger  plans,  with  equal  efficiency. 

General  Purposes. — When  the  waste  production  includes 
garbage  and  rubbish,  from  either  separated  or  combined  col- 
lections, the  incinerator  is  designed  for  disposal,  during  daylight 
hours,  of  all  the  daily  wastes.  This  means  that  if  other  ways  of 
garbage  disposal,  as  reduction,  or  feeding,  or  transportation  for 
dumping,  should  fail  at  any  time,  then  the  town  would  have 
means  at  hand  to  dispose  of  the  waste  by  incineration. 

With  an  incinerator  of  suitable  capacity,  any  town  is  independ- 
ent  of  all  other  methods  of  garbage  and  rubbish  disposal,  if 


254  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

occasion  requires.     This  applies  to  disposal  of  all  animal  bodies 
and  certain  forms  of  trade  wastes,  if  necessary. 

Rubbish  Only. — In  some  communities  the  gathering  and  sorting 
of  general  combustible  refuse  is  carried  on  for  a  revenue  from  re- 
covered marketable  material.  The  town  builds  the  refuse  utiliza- 
tion station,  including  an  incinerator  in  its  equipment,  and 
collects  the  rubbish  and  delivers  this  to  a  contractor.  The 
latter  operates  the  plant,  recovers  all  saleable  material  and  pays 
the  city  pro  rata  on  the  volume  of  material  sold. 

It  is  not  an  expensive  installation  and  is  a  source  of  constant 
revenue,  besides  avoiding  the  nuisance  of  dumping  in  any  form. 

Station  Design. — When  a  town  has  provided  a  location  suitable 
for  a  waste  disposal  station,  there  should  be  erected  a  building 
to  enclose  all  operations  of  garbage  and  refuse  reception  and 
final  disposal.  The  site  should  preferably  be  on  a  side  hill 
where  an  elevation  of  8  to  10  feet  can  be  had  on  the  natural 
incline  of  the  ground.  There  should  be  storage  room  for  at 
least  one  day's  general  collection,  and  all  operations  should  be 
screened  as  far  as  may  be  from  public  observation. 

The  building  may  be  of  any  suitable  design  and  arrangement, 
constructed  of  any  material  that  conforms  to  the  general  con- 
struction scheme  of  the  town,  and  may  be  for  temporary  or 
permanent  use,  as  desired.  The  dimensions  of  the  building  and 
incinerator  are  governed  by  the  quantities  to  be  handled  of 
garbage  and  rubbish,  not  including  ashes;  room  being  provided 
for  a  rough  sorting  of  the  refuse  for  salable  purposes. 

SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSIONS 

1.  In  an  industrial  housing  plan  the  question  of  collection, 
treatment  and  final  disposal  of  all  wastes  which  affect  the  health, 
comfort,  convenience  and  happiness  of  the  people  must  receive 
due  consideration. 

2.  The  problem  must  be  studied  with  reference  to  local  con- 
ditions in  each  particular  case,  with  the  intent  of  installing  the 
best  methods  that  skill  and  experience  can  supply. 

3.  When  the  methods  of  collection  and  disposal  are  determined 
upon,  there  should  be  a  division  of  the  collection  districts  into 
working  units,  a  calculation  of  the  quantities  of  each  class  of 
waste  to  be  collected,  the  distances  traversed,  and  the  time 
occupied  in  collections. 


COLLECTION  AND  DISPOSAL  OF  TOWN  WASTES       255 

4.  It  is  advisable  that  the  work  be  done  by  the  municipal 
agency,  either  by  the  aid  of  responsible  contracts  for  the  whole 
collection,  with  the  disposal  under  rigid  regulations,  or  by  the 
adoption  of  a  municipal  system  of  collection.  The  latter  is 
preferable. 

5.  The  work  should  be  under  the  direct  oversight  of  a  special 
inspector,  reporting  to  the  official  of  the  town  having  general 
charge  of  all  the  refuse  collections  and  street  cleaning  work. 

6".  The  regular  collection  service  should  be  made  at  times  which 
give  the  greatest  efficiency,  economy  and  public  convenience,  and 
with  equipment  best  suited  to  the  particular  purposes.  The 
collection  should  also  be  under  strict  regulations,  to  which  the 
inhabitants  must  conform. 

7.  The  chance  of  saving  some  part  of  the  waste,  and  the  re- 
covery of  revenue  therefrom,  should  be  carefully  considered, 
even  though  the  quantities  may  be  small  at  first. 

8.  The  location  chosen  for  final  disposal  should  include  a 
refuse  disposal  station,  with  a  building  of  approved  design  and  a 
means  for  destroying  all  worthless  matters. 

9.  The  problem  of  refuse  collection  and  disposal  has  now 
become  an  engineering  question,  requiring  the  advice  of 
specialists,  familiar  with  all  phases  of  this  subject.  This  should 
be  brought  to  the  attention  of  all  communities  where  industrial 
housing  is  in  progress  or  contemplated,  as  well  as  in  larger  places 
which  are  interested  in  securing  the  best  improved  methods  and 
appliances  that  can  be  obtained  for  the  solution  of  this  problem 
of  waste  collection  and  disposal. 


CHAPTER  IX 
GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE 

Gas  Service — Supply  of  Gas,  Character  and  Sources — ■ 
Utilization  of  Gas — Distribution  System — Electrical 
Service — Source  of  Power  Supply — Transmission — 
Distribution  System — Utilization — Plans  and  Speci- 
fications— Illustrations  of  Installations 

GAS  SERVICE 

Introduction. — One  of  the  problems  confronting  the  builder 
of  an  industrial  housing  development  is  that  of  providing  a  gas 
supply  for  the  homes.  While  gas  can  probably  not  be  classed 
as  a  necessity  in  the  same  sense  as  a  water  supply  or  sewerage 
system,  and  is  no  longer  the  usual  means  of  lighting,  it  is  by  no 
means  a  luxury.  Families  which  have  once  become  accustomed 
to  the  use  of  this  convenient  fuel  are  most  reluctant  to  forego  its 
comforts.  This  should  be  given  due  weight  in  considering  the 
relative  economy  of  fuel  supplies  as  they  affect  the  cost  of  the 
project. 

Advantages  of  Gas  Service. — If  a  community  is  to  be  so  situated 
that  gas  will  be  available,  and  the  cost  such  as  to  allow  its  use 
for  heating  purposes,  its  advantages  over  use  of  other  fuel  may 
be  most  fully  realized — even  .with  restricted  service.  A  gas  sup- 
ply means  the  abatement  of  the  smoke  nuisance — the  incon- 
venience of  delivery  of  coal  avoided — dust  and  dirt  in  the  houses 
reduced  to  a  minimum — easier  control  of  fires,  allowing  more 
uniform  temperatures  to  be  maintained — and  the  elimination  of 
storage  space  for  coal  permitting  more  extensive  use  of  cellars. 
The  householder  profits  from  the  elimination  of  the  operating 
labor  and  the  handling  of  ashes,  and  is  relieved  from  the  neces- 
sity of  securing  and  storing  fuel  in  advance  of  the  season. 

No  hard  and  fast  rules  can  be  laid  down  as  to  the  advisability 
of  including  gas  service  as  a  part  of  the  development.  This  is 
dependent  almost  entirely  upon  local  conditions  and  must  be 
determined  for  each  individual  case. 

256 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE  257 

SUPPLY  OF  GAS— CHARACTER  AND  SOURCES 

The  supply  may  consist  of  either  natural  or  artificial  gas  or  a 
mixture  of  the  two.  In  many  parts  of  the  country,  where 
natural  gas  is  available  but  not  in  sufficient  quantities  to  meet 
the  demand,  artificial  gas  is  being  successfully  mixed  with  it  for 
general  use.  The  gradual  exhaustion  of  the  supply  of  natural 
gas  and  the  increasing  demand  for  this  convenient  fuel  forecasts 
a  wider  use  of  a  mixed  gas. 

The  mixing  of  natural  and  artificial  gas  produces  a  fuel  having 
a  higher  heating  value  than  artificial  gas,  and  at  the  same  time 
usually  results  in  the  mixture  being  sold  at  a  lower  cost  than  it 
would  be  possible  to  market  either  gas  separately.  Eventually, 
owing  to  the  different  heating  qualities,  the  present  volumetric 
basis  on  which  gas  is  bought  and  sold  will  likely  be  replaced  by 
the  more  rational  method  of  measuring  the  service  on  the  basis 
of  the  heat  units  supplied. 

Natural  Gas. — Natural  gas  is  a  mechanical  mixture  of  several 
gases,  the  number  and  proportion  of  which  vary  with  different 
localities.  Its  heating  value  averages  in  the  neighborhood  of 
1150  B.t.u.  per  cu.  ft. — practically  double  that  of  the  best 
grades  of  artificial  gas  manufactured  for  commercial  use. 

Natural  gas  is  still  obtainable  in  many  of  the  central  and 
southwestern  parts  of  the  country,  although  in  rapidly  diminish- 
ing quantities.  Its  great  heating  value  and  usefulness,  coupled 
with  its  diminishing  yield,  undoubtedly  point  toward  conserva- 
tion, higher  prices  and  limitation  of  its  use  to  domestic  purposes. 

Artificial  Gas. — The  most  important  of  the  gases  artificially 
made  are  coal  gas,  carburetted  water  gas,  producer  gas  and  by- 
product coke  oven  gas.  In  the  past,  coal  gas  and  carburetted 
water  gas,  either  alone  or  in  combination,  have  been  most  widely 
used  for  domestic  consumption. 

Coal  Gas. — This  is  frequently  referred  to  as  "bench"  or  "illu- 
minating" gas,  and  is  manufactured  by  the  destructive  distilla- 
tion of  coal  in  externally  heated  air-tight  retorts.  It  is  primarily 
a  mixture  of  a  number  of  simple  gases.  The  heating  value  of 
coal  gas  varies  considerably,  owing  to  the  different  grades  of  coal 
used  in  its  manufacture,  but  a  value  of  550  B.t  .u.  may  be  assumed 
as  a  fair  average.  The  approximate  average  yield  per  ton  of  coal 
is  between  10,000  and  11,000  cu.  ft.  of  gas,  while  the  average 
yield  of  by-product  coke  ranges  between  1200  and  1500  lbs. 


258  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Water  Gas. — This  is  produced  by  the  decomposition  of  steam, 
acting  on  incandescent  carbon  in  the  form  of  coal  or  coke.  The 
heating  value  ranges  between  300  and  350  B.t.u.  per  cu.  ft. 
and  for  general  municipal  use  this  gas  is  usually  carburetted  or 
enriched  by  the  introduction  of  crude  oil  in  such  a  way  that  it 
becomes  permanently  fixed  in  the  mixture.  This,  in  addition  to 
raising  the  heating  value  to  approximately  that  of  coal  gas,  is 
usually  necessary  in  order  to  increase  the  illuminating  quality 
so  as  to  meet  certain  candle  power  requirements. 

The  danger  of  carbon  monoxide  poisoning  accompanies  the 
use  of  water  gas,  although  when  carburetted  the  odor  of  the  oil 
used  can  be  recognized  in  case  of  leakage,  and  ordinarily  there 
is  little  likelihood  of  an  accident  resulting  from  this  source. 

Producer  Gas. — This  is  made  by  passing  both  air  and  steam 
over  hot  coal,  the  volume  obtainable  from  one  ton  of  coal  aver- 
aging between  100,000  and  130,000  cu.  ft.  of  gas.  Owing  to  the 
large  percentage  of  nitrogen  present,  the  heating  value  of  pro- 
ducer gas  is  low,  averaging  in  the  neighborhood  of  140  B.t.u.  per 
cubic  foot. 

In  the  past,  producer  gas  has  been  used  chiefly  for  manufac- 
turing purposes,  the  equipment  for  its  production  being  located 
near  the  plant,  so  that  the  required  transportation  would  be 
short.  Gas  produced  in  this  manner  is  extremely  dirty  and, 
unless  well  cleansed  before  transporting,  is  likely  to  clog  the 
pipes  of  the  distribution  system. 

Coke  Oven  Gas. — This  is  one  of  the  products  resulting  from  the 
manufacture  of  coke  in  the  by-product  process.  Its  composition 
is  quite  similar  to  that  of  coal  gas  and  the  heating  value  ranges 
between  550  and  600  B.t.u.  per  cubic  foot. 

On  account  of  the  growing  demands,  lessened  supply  of  natural 
gas  and  development  of  the  use  of  collateral  products,  the  use 
of  by-product  gas  in  mixture  with  natural  gas  is  becoming  well 
developed.  It  furnishes  a  means  of  prolonging  the  utilization 
of  natural  gas  for  a  longer  time  than  would  be  the  case  if  it  alone 
must  be  depended  upon. 

Source  of  Supply. — Public  Service: — No  doubt,  in  a  majority 
of  cases,  the  housing  development  will  be  located  near  an  es- 
tablished community,  and  it  will  be  possible  to  obtain  a  supply 
of  either  natural  or  artificial  gas  from  the  utility  supplying  this 
town.  On  the  other  hand,  in  the  case  of  isolated  developments, 
the  high  pressure  mains  of  a  company  might  be  sufficiently  close, 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE  259 

so  that  a  supply  could  be  obtained  from  this  source.  The  supply 
might  be  secured  by  transporting  the  gas  from  a  considerable 
distance,  although  it  will  generally  be  found  that  a  gas  company 
is  quite  reluctant  to  extend  its  system  in  order  to  provide  service 
in  this  manner. 

Industrial  Supply. — It  is  quite  possible  that  the  agency  pro- 
moting the  housing  project  may  own  industrial  plants,  in  which 
a  gas  is  produced  that  can  be  utilized  for  the  development,  and 
in  view  of  the  steadily  increasing  cost  of  gas  this  possibility  should 
be  given  careful  consideration.  The  high  cost  of  manufactured 
gas  is  largely  due  to  the  necessity  of  providing  equipment  suffi- 
cient to  meet  the  greatest  demand,  even  though  the  peak  load 
usually  exists  only  during  a  comparatively  short  period  of  the 
year.  It  is  not  economical  to  manufacture  gas  in  quantities  less 
than  that  for  which  the  equipment  is  designed,  and  if  gas  is  to 
be  used  for  manufacturing  purposes  it  is  quite  likely  that  it  would 
pay  to  install  the  gas  making  plant  for  the  industry  sufficiently 
large  to  produce  gas  for  both  the  plant  and  the  housing  develop- 
ment. Or  if  a  domestic  gas  plant  is  used,  build  this  large  enough 
only  to  meet  the  average  demand  and  reinforce  the  supply  during 
periods  of  high  consumption  with  gas  from  the  industrial  plant. 

By -Product  Ovens. — On  the  other  hand,  it  might  be  that  the 
quantity  of  gas  produced  in  connection  with  other  needs, — and 
this  is  quite  common  in  connection  with  the  by-product  coke 
oven  industry, — would  be  in  excess  of  that  required  for  the  com- 
pany's own  development  and  the  surplus  could  be  distributed  to 
nearby  towns  or  other  housing  developments,  and  a  profit  thus 
realized.  Similarly,  conditions  might  be  such  that  if  a  supply  of 
gas  is  not  available  from  the  company's  own  plant,  service  could 
be  obtained  from  another  nearby  industry. 

There  will  be  few  cases  only  where  a  gas  supply  is  not  obtain- 
able from  a  public  service  corporation,  and  in  these  days  it  is 
doubtful  if  it  would  be  wise  to  build  an  independent  domestic 
plant  for  supplying  a  housing  development  only.  The  relative 
economy  of  the  different  methods  available  can  be  determined 
only  from  a  study  of  local  conditions.  In  connection  with  some 
projects  it  will  undoubtedly  be  found  that  gas  cannot  be  econom- 
ically supplied. 

UTILIZATION  OF    GAS 

Gas,  both  natural  and  artificial,  is  used  in  domestic  consump- 
tion for  heating,  cooking  and  lighting,  although  for  lighting  pur- 


2G0  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

poses  it  is  being  largely  superseded  by  the  use  of  electricity,  and 
to  some  extent  in  cooking. 

Heating. — The  usual  high  cost  of  manufactured  gas  has  prohib- 
ited its  extensive  use  for  domestic  heating,  but  the  develop- 
ment of  more  efficient  burning  devices  and  improved  methods  of 
manufacture  will  tend  to  increase  its  use  for  this  purpose.  In 
regions  where  artificial  gas,  only,  is  available,  ordinary  practice 
is  to  use  it  only  in  cooking  stoves  and  under  hot  water  heaters, 
the  heating  of  the  house  being  accomplished  by  the  use  of  coal. 
This  practice  is  now  becoming  common,  even  where  natural  gas 
is  available,  furnaces  for  the  use  of  either  gas  or  coal  being  in- 
stalled, so  as  to  guard  against  the  contingency  of  the  demand 
exceeding  the  yield  of  the  gas  fields  during  severe  and  long  con- 
tinued cold  spells. 

Natural  gas  as  a  fuel  for  house  heating  will  usually  be  found  as 
economical  as  coal,  providing  the  proper  equipment  is  used. 
With  combination  furnaces,  coal  can  be  used  during  the  coldest 
months  of  winter  when  continuous  heat  is  required,  and  gas 
during  the  fall  and  spring  when  heat  is  needed  only  during  a 
part  of  the  day.  This  will  usually  result  in  a  saving,  as  the  gas 
can  be  turned  on  or  off  instantly  and  used  only  when  required. 
Even  should  coal  be  used  in  the  furnace,  gas  fire  places  may  well 
be  used  with  economy  and  comfort  for  room  heating. 

Unless  the  town  is  a  strictly  residential  development,  the  sup- 
ply of  gas  should  be  sufficient  to  meet  the  requirements  of  small 
manufacturing  plants,  machine  shops,  etc.  It  may  be  used 
either  as  fuel  under  boilers  or  for  the  operation  of  internal  com- 
bustion engines  and  some  other  processes. 

Cooking. — Many  of  the  same  remarks  as  given  under  "  Heat- 
ing" apply  here;  but,  even  with  high  cost  of  artificial  gas,  there 
is  a  growing  demand  for  gas  and  for  appliances  to  use  for  cooking 
and  household  duties  of  various  kinds.  These  may  extend  from 
the  small  hot  plate  burner  to  the  more  pretentious  kitchen  range, 
complete  with  oven  and  all  appurtenances.  Such  use  has  almost 
become  a  necessity  in  the  summer  in  warmer  sections  of  the 
country  and  with  row  or  apartment  houses. 

Lightings — This  has  become  largely  obsolete,  except  in  remote 
localities  and  where  electricity  for  some  reason  has  not  been 
developed.  As  little  attention  is  now  paid  to  illuminants,  even 
in  artificial  gas,  it  is  customary  to  use  incandescent  mantels; 
thus  any  gas  can  be  used. 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE  261 

Amount  of  Gas  Used.- — Abnormal  peaks  of  short  duration 
are  characteristic  of  gas  service  and  the  proper  design  of  any 
supply  works  will  require  a  thorough  study  of  the  probable  daily 
and  seasonal  variations.  Space  is  too  limited  for  full  discussion 
of  such  variations  and  reference  will  be  made  only  to  the  factors 
which  affect  the  design  of  the  distribution  system. 

Average  and  Maximum. — In  most  cases  the  design  of  the  gas 
system  for  a  housing  development  will  require  a  determination 
of  the  maximum  demand,  only,  that  may  be  expected,  in  order 
that  mains  and  distributing  lines  of  adequate  size  may  be  pro- 
vided.. The  volume  of  gas  consumed  will  depend  largely  upon 
the  character  of  the  demand.  Where  natural  gas  is  to  be  used 
for  heating,  as  well  as  other  forms  of  domestic  service,  the  aver- 
age for  a  residential  development  will  be  about  120,000  cu.  ft. 
per  year,  or  14  cu.  ft.  per  hour,  per  family.  The  amount  for 
other  gases  will  be  proportionally  greater,  due  to  the  lesser 
heating  value. 

The  maximum  demand  will  be  about  three  times  this  quantity 
or  42  cu.  ft.  per  hour.  In  estimating  the  probable  consumption, 
however,  even  though  the  initial  supply  is  to  be  natural  gas,  the 
probable  future  substitution  of  manufactured  gas  must  be  taken 
into  consideration  and  allowance  made,  therefore,  for  a  demand 
of  84  cu.  ft.  per  hour. 

Allowance  Jor  Artificial  Gas. — A  comparison  of  the  probable 
maximum  consumption  of  manufactured  and  natural  gas  can- 
not, however,  be  made  solely  on  the  basis  of  fuel  values.  The 
higher  cost  of  the  manufactured  product,  as  compared  with 
natural  gas,  tends  to  decrease  its  use  as  a  fuel  and  at  the  same 
time  increase  the  care  and  economy  of  the  consumers.  The 
consumption  of  the  different  gases,  especially  for  cooking  pur- 
poses, while  depending  directly  upon  their  respective  fuel  values, 
is  somewhat  affected  by  the  element  of  time.  That  is,  while 
practically  double  the  amount  of  manufactured  gas  is  required 
to  do  the  same  amount  of  work  per  unit  of  time,  as  that  accom- 
plished by  natural  gas  having  twice  the  heating  value,  it  does 
not  necessarily  follow  that  the  work  must  be  completed  in  the 
same  length  of  time.  The  cooking  may  extend  over  a  longer 
period  and  finally  the  increasing  necessity  of  substituting  artifi- 
cial for  natural  gas  will  stimulate  the  perfection  and  efficiency 
of  heating  and  cooking  devices. 

Considering  these  factors,  a  maximum  rate  of  use  of  00  cu.  ft. 


262  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

per  hour  may  be  assumed  as  sufficient  for  both  heating  and  cook- 
ing purposes  on  all  occasions,  and  the  pipe  lines  may  safely  be 
designed  on  this  basis.  These  figures,  however,  apply  to  the 
middle  and  northern  sections  of  the  United  States.  For  develop- 
ments in  the  southerly  regions  the  effect  of  the  warmer  climate 
upon  the  maximum  demand  should  be  taken  into  consideration. 
Where  local  conditions  are  such  that  gas  will  be  used  only  for 
cooking  and  lighting  purposes,  the  distribution  system  may  be 
designed  on  this  basis.  Before  this  is  done,  however,  careful 
thought  should  be  given  to  the  possibility  of  later  abandon- 
ment of  wood  and  coal  in  extreme  cold  weather  with  a  resulting 
increased  demand  for  gas  for  such  purposes. 

Transmission. — If  the  gas  service  is  to  be  furnished  by  an 
outside  agency  the  method  of  transporting  the  gas  from  the 
source  of  supply  to  the  site  is  usually  not  one  of  the  problems  of 
the  housing  project.  In  the  limited  number  of  cases,  however, 
where  the  gas  supply  will  be  furnished  by  a  housing  corporation, 
the  principles  affecting  the  construction  of  the  transmission 
mains  will  need  to  be  kept  in  view.  The  first  consideration  is 
the  size  of  the  pipe  that  will  be  required  to  carry  a  supply 
adequate  not  only  for  the  initial  but  for  the  ultimate  development. 

Pressures. — In  practically  all  instances  where  manufactured 
gas  is  supplied,  the  required  distance  of  transportation  will  be 
short,  and  the  pressures  carried  in  the  lines  comparatively  low. 
The  latter  may  be  obtained  by  the  use  of  high-pressure  storage 
holders,  but  this  is  now  being  largely  superseded.  The  system 
which  is  gradually  coming  into  use,  consists  of  small  rotary  boost- 
ers, which  may  be  regulated  so  as  to  hold  the  pressure  uniform, 
regardless  of  the  variations  in  consumption.  In  the  transmis- 
sion of  gas,  a  moderately  high  differential  pressure  (the  difference 
between  the  pressure  at  the  inlet  and  outlet  of  the  line)  is  required, 
in  order  to  secure  enough  driving  power  to  force  the  gas  through 
the  mains.  This  pressure  is  used  up  in  overcoming  the  friction 
offered  by  the  pipe  to  the  flow  of  the  gas.  At  the  discharge  end 
of  line,  where  the  gas  is  taken  into  a  low-pressure  regulator,  the 
pressure  may  be  as  low  as  1  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  although  somewhat 
higher  amounts  are  desirable. 

Pipe  Sizes. — The  problem,  then,  is  simply  to  find  the  size  of 
pipe  that  will  be  required  to  deliver  the  necessary  amount  of 
gas  at  the  regulator  stations,  the  initial  pressure  at  the  source 
being    known.     Various    formulae    have    been    developed,    and 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE  263 

although  no  two  of  these  will  exactly  agree,  the  results  obtained 
are  comparatively  close.  The  following  formula1  by  F.  H. 
Oliphant,  is  recommended  for  use  in  determining  the  flow  of  gas, 
or  the  required  size  of  pipe,  in  high  or  medium  pressure  systems: 


Q  =  42A^ 


in  which  Q  equals  the  quantity  of  gas  in  cubic  feet  per  hour;  Pi 
equals  gage  pressure,  plus  15  lb.,  at  intake  end  of  line;  P2  equals 
gage  pressure,  plus  15  lb.,  at  discharge  end  of  line;  A  equals  the 
square  root  of  the  5.084th  power  of  the  nominal  diameter  of  the 
pipe;  L  equals  the  length  of  main,  in  miles,  and  42  is  a  constant 
deduced  from  practical  experiments.  The  specific  gravity  of 
the  gas  in  this  formula  is  assumed  as  six-tenths  and  for  a  gas 
having  any  other  specific  gravity,  the  result  should  be  multiplied 
by  the  square  root  of  six-tenths,  divided  by  the  square  root  of  the 
specific  gravity  of  the  gas  under  consideration. 

Kind  of  Pipe— Wrought  iron  or  steel  pipe  is  more  extensively 
used  for  medium  or  high  pressure  gas  mains  than  cast  iron  pipe, 
notwithstanding  the  longer  life  of  the  latter.  The  former  is  not 
likely  to  break  and  more  readily  accommodates  itself  to  settle- 
ments of  the  ground.  Cast  iron  pipe  is  usually  laid  with  lead 
joints,  and  steel  pipe  with  either  screw  joints  or  couplings,  the 
couplings  being  used  for  the  larger  sizes.  The  major  portion  of 
the  gas  lost  in  transmission  occurs  at  the  joints  in  the  line;  thus 
the  shorter  lengths  of  cast  iron  pipe  contribute  more  to  this  loss, 
and  particular  care  must  be  exercised  in  the  laying  of  the  pipe 
to  make  the  joints,  however  they  are  constructed,  as  leak-proof 
as  possible.  Threads  and  couplings  should  be  painted  with  a  thick 
mixture  of  red  and  white  lead  before  screwing  together. 

Recently  the  practice  of  welding  the  pipe  together,  end  to  end, 
by  means  of  the  oxy-acetylene  flame  has  been  tried  and,  while 
this  method  is  comparatively  new,  it  is  claimed  that  it  will 
eventually  supersede  all  others.  Practice  has  demonstrated  that 
the  strength  and  flexibility  of  the  welded  joints,  if  properly 
made,  obviate  the  necessity  of  special  provision  in  the  lines  for 
expansion.  For  steel  pipe  lines,  with  screw  joints,  provision  for 
expansion  is  sometimes  made  by  inserting  sleeves,  but  the  usual 
practice  is  to  lay  the  pipe  in  a  more  or  less  irregular  line.  In  the 
case  of  plain  end  pipe,  the  couplings  allow  for  such  contingencies. 

1  Handbook  of  Natural  Gas — IIknry  P.  Westcott. 


264  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Drips. — "Drips"  for  the  collection  of  moisture  should  be 
placed  at  all  depressions  in  the  line.  Standard  drip  pots  or 
tanks  are  manufactured  for  this  purpose,  the  main  feature  being 
a  baffle  plate,  placed  in  the  center,  for  intercepting  the  liquid  in 
the  gas,  which,  striking  against  the  plate,  drops  to  the  bottom 
of  the  tank  while  the  gas  passes  around.  These  drips  or  blow- 
offs  must  be  kept  free  from  water  by  frequent  cleaning. 

Regulators. — -For  low  pressure  distribution  the  gas  is  taken  from 
the  supply  mains  into  the  distribution  system  through  regulators 
or  governors,  which  reduce  the  pressure  to  whatever  extent  is 
necessary  to  meet  requirements.  If  the  pressure  in  the  main 
supply  line  is  over  100  lb.  per  sq.  in.,  two  regulator  stations 
will  be  required,  the  first  to  reduce  the  pressure  to  an  inter- 
mediate stage  of  15  or  20  lb.,  and  the  second,  or  low  pressure 
regulator,  to  step  this  down  to  meet  the  requirements  of 
distribution. 

The  regulator  station  may  be  placed  either  above  ground  in 
a  suitable  structure,  or  in  an  underground  vault,  whichever  may 
be  best  suited  to  local  conditions.  If  placed  underground,  ample 
provision  must  be  made  for  ventilation,  in  order  to  allow  the  gas 
to  escape  in  case  of  leakage,  and  also  to  prevent  freezing  of  the 
apparatus.  In  certain  instances  it  may  even  be  found  necessary 
to  heat  the  gas  previous  to  reducing  the  pressure,  in  order  to 
prevent  the  freezing  of  the  regulator,  although  such  measure 
will  be  found  necessary  only  when  excessive  reductions  are 
attempted. 

DISTRIBUTION  SYSTEM 

The  gas  distribution  system  within  the  limits  of  a  town  con- 
sists of  a  series  or  network  of  distributing  lines,  connecting 
various  main  lines,  the  required  number  of  mains  depending  upon 
the  size  and  arrangement  of  the  development.  The  services  for 
individual  consumers  may  be  connected  with  either  the  mains  or 
the  distributing  lines.  The  relative  advantages  of  placing  gas 
lines  in  easements  or  in  streets,  the  economy  of  a  single  and  a 
double  system  of  low  pressure  mains  in  the  streets,  and  the 
desirability  of  placing  several  utilities  in  the  same  trench  has 
been  discussed  in  another  chapter  of  this  book  and  further  refer- 
ence here  will  be  unnecessary. 

Gas  must  be  delivered  to  the  consumers  at  a  comparatively 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE  265 

uniform  pressure  adequate  for  their  needs,  but  more  than  this  is 
excessive  and  unnecessary.  Pressures  must  be  limited,  also,  in 
order  to  minimize  the  possibility  of  danger  resulting  from  leakage 
in  the  house  piping  or  in  burning  devices.  This  comparatively 
low  pressure  may  be  carried  in  the  entire  system  or  a  higher 
pressure  may  be  used  for  distribution,  and  the  required  reduction 
made  by  means  of  small  individual  regulators  installed  in  the 
service  lines. 

Each  system  has  its  advantages,  but  that  best  adapted  to  any 
particular  development  can  be  determined  only  after  a  detail 
study  of  the  relative  economy  of  each  as  affected  by  local  con- 
ditions. The  source  from  which  the  supply  is  to  be  obtained 
must  also  be  taken  into  consideration. 

Low  Pressure  Distribution. — Where  gas  is  supplied  directly 
from  the  distribution  system,  without  regulation,  the  pressure 
carried  in  the  lines  is  usually  from  4  to  6  oz.,  as  the  best  domestic 
service  is  given  when  the  gas  is  delivered  at  a  pressure  of  not  less 
than  2}  <j  oz.  per  square  inch .  Where  the  population  of  the  develop- 
ment is  to  be  in  the  neighborhood  of  5,000,  more  than  one  low- 
pressure  regulator  will  probably  be  required  and  in  such  cases 
the  supply  line  is  extended  as  required.  Usually  when  several 
regulators  will  be  required  it  will  be  found  desirable  to  carry  the 
supply  line  around  the  approximate  boundary  of  the  develop- 
ment, so  as  to  form  a  belt  line  feeding  system.  The  pressure 
carried  in  the  supply  main  may  vary  from  a  few  pounds  to  15 
or  20  lb.  per  square  inch. 

Regulators. — The  regulator  stations  should  be  carefully  located 
with  reference  to  the  center  points  of  heavy  consumption,  and 
to  the  distribution  of  the  load  throughout  the  system.  In  the 
majority  of  instances,  it  will  be  found  desirable  to  place  the 
stations  in  underground  vaults,  so  as  not  to  detract  from  the 
appearance  of  the  development.  These  may  be  placed  either 
under  the  streets  or  under  easements  reserved  for  utilities. 

The  regulator  should  preferably  be  installed  with  a  by-pass 
so  that  it  may  be  "cut-out"  for  repairs  and  the  gas  flow  tempo- 
rarily controlled  by  hand,  if  necessary.  Regulators,  constructed 
with  a  double  diaphragm,  have  been  found  to  give  the  most 
satisfactory  service,  as  the  pressures  may  be  thus  more  closely 
controlled.  Every  precaution  should  be  taken  to  obviate  the 
possibility  of  accidents  resulting  from  failure  of  the  regulators. 
Safety  valves  should  be  installed  on  the  low  pressure  side  of  the 


266 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


station  to  relieve  the  pressure  in  the  distribution  system,  should 
the  diaphragm  of  the  regulator  fail. 

In  case  the  gas  should  fail  in  the  night,  or  be  thoughtlessly 
turned  off  from  the  supply  mains  and  turned  on  again  without 
warning,  serious  accidents  might  result.  To  guard  against  this 
contingency  all  regulators  should  be  installed  with  attachments 
for  automatically  closing  the  ports  of  the  valves  and  to  prevent 
flow  of  gas  again  until  the  valves  are  opened  by  hand.  The 
material  used  in  the  construction  of  the  regulator  should  be  such 
as  will  resist  any  chemical  action  of  the  gas,  especially  where 
the  supply  is  to  be  manufactured  gas. 


Fig.  39. — Plan  of  typical  gas  regulator  station. 

A  typical  installation  of  an  underground  station,  using  a 
regulator  with  double  diaphragms,  is  illustrated  in  Fig.  39. 

Size  of  Mains. — The  design  of  low  pressure  distribution  systems 
should  make  ample  allowance  for  contingencies.  The  size  of 
the  mains  should  be  liberal  so  that  the  loss  of  pressure  between 
the  regulators  and  the  most  distant  consumers  will  be  practically 
negligible.  In  common  parlance,  the  lines  should  act  more  as 
reservoirs  than  as  conductors,  so  that  the  pressure  at  the  regu- 
lators may  be  maintained  at  about  4  ounces  per  square  inch. 
This  will  tend  to  more  nearly  equalize  the  pressures  throughout 
the  system  and  will  insure  a  more  satisfactory  service. 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE  2C7 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that  the  period  of  maximum 
demand  will  usually  exist  only  during  a  comparatively  few  days 
of  the  winter  months,  depending  upon  geographical  location  and 
the  severity  of  the  winter.  In  the  majority  of  cases  this  period 
will  probably  constitute  not  more  than  three  or  four  per  cent,  of 
the  entire  year  and  to  meet  this  demand  the  pressures  at  the 
regulator  stations  may  be  increased, — providing  of  course  that 
the  supply  of  gas  is  adequate.  The  design  of  the  system  should 
be  such,  however  that  even  in  the  most  extreme  cases,  the  re- 
quired increase  in  pressure  should  not  exceed  several  ounces. 
The  loss  of  gas  in  a  well  designed  low  pressure  system  should 
not  exceed  five  per  cent. 

High  Pressure  Distribution. — It  is  possible,  however,  and  in 
certain  instances  desirable,  to  distribute  the  gas  under  a  high 
or  medium  pressure.  The  low  pressure  required  for  domestic 
use  is  obtained  in  such  a  case,  by  the  use  of  small  individual 
regulators,  placed  on  the  service  connections.  In  such  a  system, 
accidents  resulting  from  the  improper  functioning  of  the  individ- 
ual regulators  or  governors  are  infrequent,  especially  when  proper 
precautions  are  taken  by  installing  safety  devices  in  connection 
with  the  regulators. 

Satisfactory  service  may  be  given  in  this  manner  and  smaller 
pipe  lines  are  possible.  The  saving  due  to  the  use  of  less  expen- 
sive lines,  however,  is  offset  to  a  large  extent  by  the  cost  of  the 
attachments  on  the  service  connections  to  the  consumers.  This 
is  especially  true  where  the  development  is  concentrated.  On 
the  other  hand,  considerable  economy  may  be  realized  by  such 
high  pressure  service,  where  the  consumers  are  few  in  proportion 
to  the  required  length  of  the  distributing  mains,  or  where  service 
may  be  obtained  directly  from  the  medium  or  high  pressure  lines 
serving  a  district. 

Aside  from  the  saving  that  it  may  be  possible  to  realize,  high 
pressure  distribution  has  the  distinct  advantage  of  making  pos- 
sible the  delivery  of  gas  to  every  house  at  a  constant  and  uni- 
form pressure,  no  matter  what  the  distance.  In  addition  pres- 
sures can  be  varied  to  meet  individual  needs.  Where  manu- 
factured gas  is  used,  high  pressure  greatly  reduces  the  possibility 
of  trouble  from  freezing  of  the  lines.  The  possibility  of  such  a 
method  of  distribution  should  be  given  most  careful  consideration. 

Design  of  Distribution. — The  use  of  wrought  iron  or  steel  pipe 
is  recommended  and  particular  care  should  be  taken  in  laying  to 


2C8  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

secure  tight  joints,  so  as  to  limit  the  loss  from  leakage.  In 
laying  out  the  distribution  system,  care  should  be  taken  to  elimi- 
nate all  unnecessary  bends  in  the  pipe,  so  as  to  minimize  the  fric- 
tion set  up  by  a  change  in  the  direction  of  the  flow  of  the  gas. 
Although  such  refinement  is  not  usually  necessary,  allowance  in 
design  for  the  drop  in  pressure,  due  to  the  friction  of  fittings  and 
valves  may  be  made  by  addition  of  a  certain  length  to  that  of 
the  straight  section  of  pipe  under  consideration. 

General. — The  first  consideration  is  an  estimate  of  the  popu- 
lation, and  this  must  take  into  consideration  the  probable  future 
developments  and  the  directions  which  these  growths  may  take. 
The  character  of  the  community — whether  residential  or  largely 
industrial — should  be  considered  in  determining  the  average  and 
maximum  consumption.  The  general  topography  of  the  area 
under  consideration,  as # well  as  variation  in  level,  and  its  relation 
to  the  source  of  the  supply,  affects  the  design.  Consideration 
must,  of  course,  be  given  to  the  distribution  of  the  demand  for 
gas,  whether  equally  spread  over  the  district  or  unequally — and 
if  the  latter,  in  which  direction  the  greatest  quantities  of  gas  will 
be  needed. 

The  natural  tendency  of  gas  to  rise  should  be  utilized  by  arrang- 
ing the  mains  so  that  the  principal  lines  may  run  through  the 
lower  portions  of  the  district,  if  this  is  possible.  In  the  determina- 
tion, or  design  of  a  system,  this  characteristic  of  gas  should  be 
recognized  by  making  an  allowance  in  considering  the  pressures. 
For  this  purpose,  the  gravitating  effect  of  the  gas  can  be  assumed 
as  equal  to  a  column  of  water  one  inch  in  height  for  each  vertical 
rise  or  fall  of  100  ft.  in  the  line. 

Slope  and  Drips. — Gas  lines  should  be  laid  on  a  slope,  so  as  to 
provide  drainage  for  the  water  due  to  the  condensation  of  the 
moisture  in  the  gas.  The  minimum  allowable  grade  should  not 
.  be  less  than  0.25  per  cent.  At  all  depressions,  drip  pots  should 
be  placed,  and  these  should  be  inspected  and  cleaned  frequently. 
In  laying  out  and  constructing  the  system,  all  the  low  pressure 
lines  should  be  connected,  and  no  dead  ends  allowed. 

Valves  and  Bags. — In  a  low  pressure  system  valves  are  not 
required  in  the  lines,  except  at  regulator  stations  and  at  those 
places  where  local  conditions  may  make  this  provision  desirable. 
For  the  purpose  of  repairing  any  section  of  the  system,  the  gas 
may  be  shut  off  from  this  locality  by  means  of  gas  bags,  inserted 
through  holes  drilled  in  the  pipes. 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE  2G9 

Depth  of  Laying. — Where  natural  gas  is  used,  there  is  no  danger 
of  the  lines  freezing,  and  they  may  be  laid  at  any  depth  deter- 
mined by  other  considerations.  With  manufactured  or  artificial 
gas,  however,  the  possibility  of  the  lines  freezing  must  be  taken 
into  consideration  in  determining  the  depth  at  which  they  should 
be  laid.  This  is  more  particularly  true  of  small  lines  which  may 
become  clogged  through  condensation  and  freezing  of  the  water 
which  is  always  carried  in  the  gas.  A  depth  of  from  two  to 
three  feet,  however,  will  usually  be  sufficient,  except  in  extremely 
cold  climates.  The  difficulty  experienced  in  connection  with  the 
freezing  of  the  lines  when  artificial  gas  is  used  is  largely  done 
away  with  if  the  gas  is  distributed  under  a  medium  or  high  pres- 
sure. 

Size  of  Pipes. — The  required  size  of  the  medium  and  low  pres- 
sure distributing  mains  may  be  determined  by  the  use  of  the 

/PD 

formula  of  Dr.  Pole,  V  =  1350  D2  J  —  in  which  V  equals  vol- 
ume of  gas  discharged,  in  cubic  feet  per  hour;  D  equals  diameter 
of  pipe,  in  inches;  P  equals  pressure  drop,  in  inches  of  water; 
S  equals  specific  gravity  of  gas  (air  equals  1) ;  L  equals  length  of 
line  in  yards;  and  1350  is  a  constant,  deducted  from  practice  and 
experiment.  The  pressure  of  a  column  of  water  one  inch  in 
height  may  be  taken  as  equal  to  0.577  ounces  per  square  inch. 
The  size  of  high  pressure  lines  may  be  determined  from  the  Oli- 
phant  formula  given  under  "Transmission". 

Services. — Tapping  Mains. — In  laying  the  gas  lines,  provisions 
such  as  "TV  are  not  necessary  or  desirable  for  service  connections. 
After  the  lines  are  laid,  holes  are  drilled,  either  before  or  after 
the  gas  has  been  turned  in,  by  means  of  a  tapping  machine,  and 
the  service  pipe  connected  by  means  of  two  street  L's". 
With  wrought  iron  or  steel  mains,  a  saddle  or  service  clamp  will 
be  required,  as  the  thickness  of  the  pipe  shell  is  not  sufficient 
for  threading. 

Size. — A  1^-in.  service  line  will  supply  an  eight  to  ten-room 
house,  and  sizes  smaller  than  this  should  never  be  used.  Where 
the  service  line  is  not  excessively  long,  a  lj^-in.  pipe  should  be 
large  enough  to  furnish  a  supply  sufficient  for  all  domestic  needs 
to  the  largest  house.  For  industrial  use,  it  will  be  necessary  to 
determine  the  size  of  service  line  required  to  meet  the  individual 
circumstances.  For  schools,  churches,  stores,  etc.,  a  2-in.  service 
line  should  be  used. 


270  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Galvanized  pipe  is  not  essential  for  service  connection,  and  a 
considerable  saving  may  be  realized  by  the  use  of  black  pipe. 
All  fittings,  however,  should  be  galvanized  iron  throughout. 

Curb  Cocks. — Stop  cocks  should  be  placed  on  all  service  lines, 
and  a  further  economy  may  be  effected  by  the  use  of  stop  cocks 
with  galvanized  iron  cases  instead  of  all  brass  stop  cocks.  Valve 
boxes,  or  "curb  boxes",  as  they  are  usually  called,  should  be 
placed  over  all  service  cocks.  The  usual  diameter  of  the  shaft 
of  such  boxes  is  2}i  in.,  and,  while  these  are  a  standard  product, 
care  should  be  taken  to  obtain  a  box  with  a  base  of  sufficient 
size,  so  that  no  weight  will  be  transmitted  to  the  service  line.  As 
the  services  will  probably  not  all  be  the  same  depth  below  the 
surface,  boxes  with  an  extension  or  adjustable  top  should  be 
used.  A  top  with  an  arrangement  for  locking  is  a  desirable 
feature. 

Where  the  service  is  taken  from  a  line  in  an  easement  at  the 
rear  of  a  lot,  the  location  of  the  service  boxes  should  be  marked, 
so  that  they  may  easily  be  found  in  case  it  becomes  necessary 
to  shut  off  the  gas  in  an  emergency.  This  can  easily  be  done  by 
extending  the  top  of  the  box  a  few  inches  above  the  ground  and 
protecting  it  with  a  small  concrete  block.  Such  a  block  should  be 
constructed  with  sloping  sides  and  extended  a  sufficient  distance 
in  the  ground  to  resist  the  uplifting  action  of  frost.  The  hole  in 
the  center  of  the  block  should  be  left  sufficiently  large  to  allow 
the  removal  of  the  service  box  without  disturbing  the  marker. 

Slope  and  Drip. — Where  possible  the  service  line  should 
slope  toward  the  main  so  as  to  allow  for  drainage.  If  the  slope 
of  the  ground  is  such  that  this  cannot  be  done,  it  will  be  necessary 
to  place  a  small  drip  pot  at  the  cellar  wall,  to  allow  for  the  collec- 
tion of  condensation  from  the  line. 

In  order  to  protect  the  pipe  at  the  cellar  wall  and  also  to  allow 
for  easy  removal,  a  galvanized  iron  sleeve  several  sizes  larger 
than  the  service  pipe  should  be  used.  The  opening  between  the 
pipe  and  the  sleeve  may  readily  be  closed  after  the  fine  has  been 
installed  by  caulking  or  cementing  the  opening. 

Plans  and  Specifications. — Even  though,  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  a  gas  system  will  be  owned  and  operated  as  a  public  utility, 
it  will  be  desirable  to  include  the  design  as  part  of  the  housing  pi  o- 
ject,  in  order  to  coordinate  with  other  utilities  and  street  work. 

Plans. — General  and  detail  plans  should  always  be  prepared, 
the  former  to  show  comprehensive  layout  of  the  system — supply 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE  271 

and  distribution  mains,  distributing  lines,  regulators,  drips, 
valves  and  the  location  of  all  other  structural  features.  Detail 
location  of  lines  and  structures  may  be  quite  readily  shown  on 
plans  of  other  utilities,  in  connection  with  water  lines  and  sewers. 
This  will  insure  proper  clearances  and  prevent  interferences. 

These  plans  should  show  profiles  in  order  to  establish  grades 
and  relation  to  the  finished  surface.  Details  of  typical  service 
installations  should  be  prepared,  as  well  as  plans  for  the  construc- 
tion of  regulator  stations.  These  should  show  clearly  details 
of  piping  connections  to  regulators  and  the  location  of  all  valves 
and  safety  devices.  Cross-sections  of  streets,  showing  the  depth 
of  lines  and  relation  to  other  utilities,  will  be  found  desirable. 

Specifications. — The  construction  of  lines  may  be  handled  in  a 
number  of  different  ways.  Whatever  agreement  is  made,  the 
specifications  should  be  such  as  to  insure  a  satisfactory  service. 
The  rights  of  utility  companies  and  obligations  regarding  main- 
tenance of  systems  should  be  clearly  understood  and  stated. 
This  is  particularly  important  as  relating  to  repair  to  pipes  under 
the  pavements. 

Technical  specifications  should  cover  the  kind  of  pipe  to  be 
used,  method  of  installation,  sequence  of  construction  consider- 
ing other  utilities,  depth  of  lines,  location  of  structures  and  the 
materials  of  construction.  Methods  of  installing  services  should 
be  clearly  stated,  the  location  and  protection  of  service  boxes, 
and  the  type  and  location  of  meters.  With  high  pressure  service, 
particular  stress  should  be  laid  on  the  installation  of  house  regu- 
lators. In  short,  all  agreements  and  specifications  should  have 
in  view  securing  an  adequate  and  satisfactory  service  at  a  mini- 
mum of  cost. 

ELECTRICAL  SERVICE 

Introduction. — Electrical  service  for  municipalities  not  infre- 
quently introduces  some  rather  difficult  problems,  which  require 
careful  consideration  to  the  end  that  an  adequate  and  dependable 
service  at  reasonable  cost  may  be  secured.  It  is  important  that 
that  the  installation  may  be  made  in  such  a  manner  as  will  not 
unduly  detract  from  the  appearance  of  the  development,  and 
also  be  capable  of  future  extensions  without  manifest  changes 
in  plan  of  system. 

Where  service  is  furnished  by  a  public  utility  company,  there 
frequently  arises  a  conflict  of  interest  and  opinion,  the  company 


272  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

being  guided  by  the  inertia  of  established  practice  as  to  installa- 
tion and  operation  and  controlled  very  largely  by  cost  factors. 
Further,  the  rates  which  may  be  charged  are  commonly  regu- 
lated by  State  Utility  Commissions  and,  if  the  cost  of  installa- 
tion is  greater  than  usual  practice  would  entail,  the  company 
cannot  obtain  sufficient  return  upon  the  investment  unless  the 
builder  of  the  project  participates  in  the  first  cost  of  construc- 
tion. Even  then,  particularly  if  the  installation  is  a  small  one, 
the  utility  operating  officials  will  not  care  to  depart  from  their 
standard  operating  practice. 

The  builder's  view  point  is  based  on  the  more  intangible  but 
nevertheless  real  grounds  of  appearance  and  attractiveness;  not 
however  lessening  the  value  of  good  service.  Having  in  mind 
the  efforts  he  has  made  and  the  expense  he  has  undergone  to 
add  to  the  amenities  of  the  project,  in  the  planning  of  the  streets, 
lots,  planting,  grouping  of  the  houses  and  similar  features  of  good 
town  planning,  he  is  most  desirous  of  not  detracting  from  at- 
tractiveness by  overhanging  festoons  of  wires.  Particularly  he 
wishes  to  avoid  those  practices  which  tend  so  much  to  injure 
the  good  looks  of  streets,  which  can  be  eliminated  at  slight 
additional  cost;  sometimes  even,  it  may  be  said,  at  a  lesser  cost 
than  that  of  the  established  practice  of  the  company.  If  the 
installation  is  to  be  attractively  carried  out,  the  advances  in  art 
or  design  may  have  to  be  initiated  by  the  builders.  It  is  therefore 
of  value  to  point  out  the  various  ways  in  which  this  may  be 
made  to  answer  different  requirements  and  conditions. 

When  current  is  furnished,  either  from  a  nearby  industry  or 
from  a  power  plant,  built  especially  for  the  development,  the 
builder  of  the  project  can  control  the  features  of  the  installation. 
He  is  then  interested  in  what  manner  and  at  what  cost  he  can 
attain  the  desired  results.  The  important  questions  are  where 
can  the  service  be  obtained  most  cheaply  and  how  can  it  be 
installed  in  the  most  satisfactory  manner. 

A  working  knowledge  of  the  features  and  uses  of  the  various 
elements  of  a  complete  electrical  installation  is  essential,  in  order 
that  a  good  practical  scheme  may  be  worked  out.  These  include 
the  following:  the  power  plant;  the  transmission  or  supply  line; 
the  high  voltage  piimary  circuit  within  the  project;  the  secondary 
system  of  low  voltage,  from  which  the  house  sei  vices  are  directly 
taken;  the  house  services  and  meters;  the  street  lighting  circuits, 
and  the  various  units  of  utilization  of  current. 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE  273 

SOURCE  OF  POWER  SUPPLY 

There  are  two  possible  sources  of  electrical  energy  between 
which  it  may  be  necessary  to  choose.  If  the  project  is  adjacent 
to  an  existing  community  or  power  development,  it  may  be  pos- 
sible to  purchase  power.  If  no  existing  power  development  is 
available,  it  will  be  necessary  to  construct  a  power  plant,  or 
design  and  utilize  part  of  the  power  plant  of  the  industry  to 
meet  the  local  requirements.  These  two  possibilities  are  dis- 
cussed briefly  in  the  order  named. 

Purchase  from  Existing  Utility. — Where  existing  power  de- 
velopments are  available  as  a  source  of  supply,  it  is  usually  more 
economical  to  purchase  power  than  to  generate  it.  This  is 
especially  true  if  the  demand  is  only  such  as  to  require  construc- 
tion of  a  small  plant.  The  question  of  relative  dependability 
between  two  or  more  sources  of  supply  should  be  given  careful 
consideration.  There  may  be  more  than  one  existing  utility 
company  able  to  furnish  service.  It  may  further  develop  that 
the  service  which  can  be  furnished  from  an  existing  source,  may 
be  subject  to  interruption  or  breakdown,  such  that  the  construc- 
tion of  a  local  plant  may  be  advisable,  unless  it  is  possible  to 
secure  a  guarantee  of  continuous  service  from  the  utility 
company. 

Three  main  factors  go  to  make  up  a  satisfactory  supply; 
namely,  continuity  of  service,  constancy  of  voltage  and  reasonable 
cost  to  the  consumer.  Purchase  of  power  from  existing  com- 
panies generally  increases  the  possibilities  of  the  first  two  and 
decreases  the  third.  This  method  reduces  the  overhead  expense 
of  financing,  engineering,  construction,  and  managing  the 
station  and  system.  It  places  the  responsibility  for  the  con- 
tinuity of  service  and  the  constancy  of  voltage  with  a  large 
concern,  which  can  well  afford  the  expert  advice  and  expense  of 
installation  most  likely  to  produce  these  results. 

Local  Generating  Station.— The  alternative  of  designing  and 
constructing  a  plant  to  supply  the  local  requirements  must  be 
followed  if  it  is  not  possible  to  purchase  power  from  an  existing 
public  service  or  power  company.  Three  general  types  of  power 
plants  should  be  considered,  based  on  the  type  of  prime  mover. 
These  are  (a)  the  steam  plant,  (6)  the  internal  combustion  engine 
plant,  and  (c)  the  hydraulic  plant,  which  is  possible  only  under 
favorable  surroundings. 

18 


274  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Steam  Plants. — The  coal  burning  steam  plant  is  the  most 
common  of  this  type.  It  will  be  necessary  to  choose  between 
reciprocating  steam  engine  and  steam  turbines  for  prime  movers. 
A  comparison  of  the  economy  of  these  two  types  of  prime  movers 
is  not  attempted  here,  but  should  be  made  on  the  basis  of  the 
particular  plant  in  question. 

The  possibility  of  using  by-product  steam  should  be  considered, 
since  it  often  makes  advantageous  the  construction  and  operation 
of  a  local  power  plant,  even  when  there  is  an  existing  and  avail- 
able source  of  supply.  Cases  will  arise  where  water  pumping 
stations  are  to  be  built,  or  where  the  size  of  the  development  may 
warrant  the  construction  of  a  modern  high  temperature  incinerat- 
ing or  refuse  disposal  plant.  In  the  first  case  exhaust  steam  may 
suffice  for  the  operation  of  electrical  units;  and  in  the  second,  the 
direct  steam  from  boilers  of  waste  destruction  units  can  well  be 
utilized  as  a  source  of  power  supply. 

Internal  Combustion  Units. — The  internal  combustion  engine 
using  natural  gas,  gasoline  or  fuel  oil  also  offers  possibilities  as 
a  prime  mover.  The  natural  gas  engine  is,  of  course,  limited  to 
territory  supplied  by  this  fuel.  The  gasoline  and  oil  engines  are 
not  so  limited.  The  recent  developments  in  the  Diesel  type  of 
internal  combustion  engine,  using  low  grade  fuels,  forces  the 
consideration  of  this  type  of  prime  mover,  especially  for  iso- 
lated plants  of  small  capacity. 

Hydro-Electric  Units. — If  water  power  is  available  in  suffi- 
cient quantity,  it  offers  attractive  possibilities  in  these  days  of 
increasing  costs  of  coal,  gas  and  oil.  The  cost  of  such  a  station, 
as  compared  to  the  other  types  and  the  time  it  would  take  to 
complete  the  development,  would  doubtless  considerably  exceed 
the  cost  and  time  of  development  of  the  other  types.  However, 
the  freedom  from  full  and  excessive  labor  charges  makes  such  a 
method  worthy  of  consideration.  The  permanency  and  ulti- 
mate requirements  of  the  project  determine  whether  or  not  the 
increased  expense  will  be  justifiable. 

Capacity. — The  capacity  of  an  electric  station  to  care  for  the 
needs  of  a  community  depends  so  much  upon  the  character  of  the 
community  and  the  habits  and  customs  of  its  people  that  average 
figures  must  be  used  with  caution.  In  small  villages  the  amount 
of  power  demand,  for  all  purposes,  may  be  0.05  kilowatt  per 
capita;  but  towns  and  cities  with  population  of  20,000  or  more 
need  about  0.1  kilowatt  per  capita. 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE  275 

The  size  of  a  plant  affects  the  cost  very  materially,  the  unit 
cost  being  much  greater  for  small  plants  than  for  the  larger  ones. 
For  plants  of  less  than  500  kilowatts  capacity  the  unit  cost  is 
found  to  be  between  $200  and  $300  per  kilowatt,  while  larger 
plants  may  be  built  for  $200  to  $100  per  kilowatt. 

TRANSMISSION 

The  word  transmission  as  used  here  means  the  conveyance 
of  power  in  quantity,  at  comparatively  high  voltage,  from  a  gen- 
erating station  to  a  substation  in  the  development.  This  is 
necessary  only  where  the  energy  is  purchased  or  generated  at  a 
distance  from  the  site  of  its  application,  and  generally  obtains, 
if  at  all,  with  large  developments.  Three  factors  must  be  con- 
sidered. They  are:— Right  of  Way;  Voltage  and  Frequency; 
and  Line  Construction. 

Right  of  Way. — The  transmission  line  may  be  located  in  a 
private  right  of  way  or  on  the  public  highway.  The  voltage 
employed  and  the  type  of  supporting  structures  will  largely 
determine  whether  or  not  the  highway  can  be  used.  While  the 
private  right  of  way  has  certain  advantages,  yet  for  any  except 
the  larger  and  higher  voltage  lines,  the  advantages  of  using 
public  highways  are  probably  greater,  because  of  the  reduced 
expense  in  construction  and  the  ease  of  access  both  for  inspection 
and  maintenance. 

Voltage. — The  voltage  of  the  transmission  line  is  determined 
largely  by  two  factors,  namely,  the  voltage  at  the  power  station, 
from  which  current  is  received,  and  the  suitability  of  that  voltage 
for  the  particular  length  of  line  in  question.  For  example,  it  is 
entirely  possible  that  the  initial  voltage  of  transmission  or  station 
from  which  the  energy  is  received  might  be  entirely  too  high  to 
be  practicable,  by  reason  of  expensive  supporting  structures 
and  insulation  required.  On  the  other  hand,  it  might  be  too  low 
for  economical  transmission  at  that  distance. 

If  the  initial  voltage  is  not  suitable  to  the  transmission  in 
question,  a  transformer  substation  will  be  necessary.  The 
standard  frequencies  in  the  United  States  are  25  and  60  cycle 
per  second.  Of  these  two,  the  latter  is  the  more  common  because 
lighting  installations  are  rather  unsatisfactory  when  the  fre- 
quency is  lower  than  60  cycles,  although  it  is  used  in  some 
cases  because  of  its  advantages  in  motor  operations. 


276  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Line  Construction. — The  exact  nature  of  the  supporting  struc- 
tures can  be  determined  only  by  consideration  of  all  of  the  local 
conditions.  These  structures  may  be  of  the  simple  pole  or  mast 
type,  of  A-frame  construction  or  of  tower  construction.  The 
pole,  mast,  or  A-frame  types  can  be  made  of  wood,  steel  or 
reinforced  concrete.  The  tower  type  of  supporting  structure  is 
ordinarily  made  of  steel.  The  principal  factors  which  determine 
the  particular  type  are  the  cost  and  the  suitability  to  the  proposed 
location. 

The  choice  of  conductor  size  and  material  is  largely  a  question 
of  economy.  The  exact  size  will  be  determined  by  a  number  of 
factors  among  which  are  the  amount  of  power  to  be  transmitted, 
the  voltage  at  which  it  is  transmitted  and  the  length  of  the  line. 
It  should  be  so  selected  that  the  annual  cost,  including  fixed 
charges  and  cost  of  energy  lost  in  the  line,  will  be  a  minimum, 
unless  the  requirements  of  necessary  mechanical  strength  and 
permissible  voltage  variation  at  the  receiver  end,  due  to  change 
in  load,  dictate  a  larger  size. 

DISTRIBUTION  SYSTEM 

The  distribution  system  begins  at  the  terminals  of  the  trans- 
mission line  and  consists  of  three  main  links,  viz.:  The  sub- 
station, at  which  energy  is  stepped  down  from  transmission  line 
voltage  to  primary  distribution  voltage;  the  primary  distribu- 
tion system  or  feeders;   the  secondary  distribution  system. 

Substations. — The  substation  is  always  necessary  where 
energy  is  purchased  or  generated  at  a  voltage  higher  than  the 
primary  distribution  voltage.  The  particular  type  of  sub- 
station and  equipment  which  it  must  contain  can  only  be  deter- 
mined by  the  consideration  of  the  requirement  of  the  community 
to  be  served. 

Simple  Transformer.— If  only  alternating  current  is  to  be 
distributed,  then  all  that  will  be  required  is  a  simple  transformer 
substation,  which  may  be  either  of  the  outdoor  or  indoor  type. 
Such  alternating  current  type  of  substation  is  to  be  desired,  both 
for  reason  of  lower  first  cost  and  lower  cost  of  operation. 

Rotary  Converter. — If  direct  current  must  be  provided  by  the 
sub-station  as  well  as  alternating  current,  then  recourse  must  be 
had  to  the  use  of  rotating  machinery  in  the  substation,  for  the 
conversion    of    alternating    to    direct    current.     The     rotating 


GAS  A$D  ELECTRIC  SERVICE  277 

machinery  may  be  either  in  the  form  of  a  motor  generator  or 
synchronous  converter,  though  for  general  purposes  the  former 
is  preferable,  by  reason  of  its  greater  flexibility.  In  either  case 
the  introduction  of  rotating  machinery  involves  not  only  addi- 
tional first  cost,  but  increased  operating  expense,  as  constant 
station  attendance  is  necessary.  In  the  case  of  the  simple  trans- 
former substation,  no  attendance  other  than  periodic  inspection 
is  necessary. 

Primary  Distribution. — The  primary  distribution  system  in- 
cludes the  lines,  or  feeders,  by  which  the  power  is  transmitted 
from  a  substation  to  the  stepping  down  transformer  nearest  the 
consumer's  premises.  The  study  for  such  system  involves 
similar  considerations  as  for  water  distribution;  namely,  a 
determination  of  areas  or  zones  of  such  use,  and  of  capacity 
and  extent  as  affecting  economical  design.  The  two  principal 
items  in  connection  with  the  design  of  the  primary  distribution 
system  are: — the  voltage  and  whether  single-,  two-,  or  three- 
phase  current  be  used. 

Voltage  and  Phase. — It  is  almost  universal  practice  in  America 
to  use  2300  volts  as  the  primary  distribution  voltage.  Single- 
phase  distribution  will  meet  all  the  requirements  of  a  lighting 
load.  If  a  power  load  is  to  be  supplied,  then  either  a  two-  or 
three-phase  system  must  be  used.  Of  these  the  three-phase 
system  is  the  more  economical  in  line  material  and  is  most 
commonly  used. 

Location. — Three  possibilities  present  themselves  for  the 
location  of  the  primary  distribution  system.  It  may  either  be 
located  on  the  streets,  in  the  alleys  or  on  an  easement.  Although 
it  has  been  common  in  the  past  to  use  the  streets,  this  is  to  be 
avoided,  if  possible,  because  of  the  unsightly  appearances  if 
overhead  lines  are  used,  and  because  of  the  interruption  to  traffic 
and  disturbance  to  pavements  when  extensions  or  changes  are 
necessary  in  an  underground  system.  These  objections  indicate 
the  use  of  alleys  or  easement  construction. 

Overhead  or  Underground. — The  primary  distribution  system 
may  be  either  entirely  overhead  as  has  become  the  practice  in 
all  small  American  communities,  or  it  may  be  entirely  under- 
ground, thus  eliminating  the  unsightly  appearance  of  poles 
and  wires,  or  it  may  be  a  combination  of  overhead  and  under- 
ground. Overhead  distribution  is  cheaper  to  construct  and 
oftentimes   makes   possible   the  supply  of  electrical  energy  to 


278  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

districts  where  the  possible  revenue  would  in  no  way  justify 
more  expensive  construction. 

On  the  other  hand,  overhead  construction  is  undoubtedly 
objectionable,  both  from  the  standpoint  of  the  appearance  as 
well  as  hazard.  In  the  downtown  or  business  districts,  where 
there  is  congestion  of  population,  the  hazards  incident  to  over- 
head construction  are  somewhat  greater  and  the  density  of 
demand  may  easily  justify  the  placing  of  all  the  wires  under- 
ground. In  high  class  residential  districts,  the  objection  to 
overhead  lines  on  aesthetic  grounds  may  warrant  the  placing  of 
the  wires  underground,  even  though  purely  economic  reasons 
would  indicate  overhead  construction. 

Overhead.— If  overhead  line  construction  is  determined  upon, 
the  factors  which  must  be  given  consideration  are  the  height  and 
spacing  of  poles,  the  size  of  conductor  and  the  location,  number 
and  size  of  distributing  transformers,  the  number  varying  in- 
versely as  their  size.  Whether  to  use  fewer  transformers  of 
larger  size  or  a  larger  number  of  transformers  of  smaller  size 
will  depend  almost  entirely  upon  the  density  of  demand. 

Underground. — If  underground  distribution  is  determined 
upon,  it  is  necessary  to  consider  the  various  duct  materials  avail- 
able, that  is,  vitrified  clay,  fibre  or  wood,  as  well  as  the  number  of 
such  ducts.  The  choice  of  material  for  ducts  involves  a  question 
of  first  costs,  construction  and  maintenance  and  may  depend 
upon  whether  or  not  it  is  desirable  to  place  other  utilities  under- 
ground at  the  same  time;  as  for  example,  telephone  cable  and 
police  and  fire  alarm  signal  wires.  Lead  covered  armored 
cable  laid  in  trenches  without  employing  ducts,  is  extensively 
used  in  street  lighting  circuits,  and  in  running  out  from  overhead 
construction  in  the  rear  of  the  houses  to  street  lights.  This 
should  be  remembered  as  the  use  of  ducts  is  not  necessarily  im- 
plied in  underground  construction. 

The  conductor  for  underground  distribution  will  be  in  the  form 
of  cable,  but  whether  single  or  multiple  conductor  will  depend 
upon  conditions.  The  one  essential  condition  for  satisfactory 
underground  construction  is  that  the  cable  must  be  protected 
by  a  flexible  metal  covering  which  is  absolutely  impervious  to 
water,  and  this  condition  dictates  the  use  of  lead  covering. 

The  spacing  of  manholes  for  a  duct  system  depends  not  only 
upon  the  distance  between  cross  streets,  but  also  upon  the  size 
and  weight  of  cables  to  be  drawn;  the  spacing  varies  from  150  to 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE  279 

400  ft.  The  manhole  may  be  of  the  single  compartment  type,  used 
exclusively  for  light  and  power  cable  or  for  telephone  and  fire 
alarm  cables.  They  are  usually  built  of  brick  or  concrete,  in 
rectangular  or  elliptical  plan  Some  projects  call  for  a  combina- 
tion manhole  for  telephone,  fire  alarm  and  lighting-power  service, 
the  two  being  separated  by  a  fire  proof  wall.  The  combination 
manhole  is  not  desirable  where  two-way  lateral  distribution  is 
necessary. 

Combination  Circuits. — It  is  not  probable  that  either  of  the 
foregoing  methods  can  be  used  exclusively  throughout  the  entire 
territory  to  be  served.  The  underground  system,  in  the  business 
district  and  higher  class  permanent  residential  districts,  might 
be  combined  with  the  overhead  construction  in  outlying  dis- 
tricts, thus  making  possible  an  economical  distribution  over  much 
wider  territory. 

In  working  out  the  general  arrangement  of  the  distribution 
system,  comparative  studies  and  estimates  should  be  made  and 
due  regard  paid  to  the  economic  and  practical  features  of  the 
various  methods  previously  described.  A  location  might  be 
found  which  was  quite  advantageous  with  regard  to  the  primary 
and  secondary  circuits,  and  yet  make  difficult  and  expensive  the 
location  of  the  street  lighting  or  house  service  circuits.  While 
the  underground  installation  is  most  satisfactory,  in  that  it  has  no 
detrimental  effect  upon  the  aesthetics  of  town  planning,  yet  its 
cost  in  many  instances  is  prohibitive,  and  in  many  situations  it 
will  be  looked  upon  as  an  undue  and  uncalled-for  refinement. 

A  composite  plan  may  be  advantageously  worked  out,  which 
for  illustration,  might  include  underground  construction  on  park- 
ways, main  thoroughfares  in  the  vicinity  of  parks,  community 
centers,  etc.;  primary  and  secondary  circuits  located  on  easements 
in  the  rear  of  the  houses;  in  some  cases  the  primary  circuits 
being  carried  on  pole  fines  in  alleys  or  easements  and  the  second- 
ary circuits  on  brackets  attached  to  the  houses,  insofar  as  house 
location  and  grouping  will  permit.  Street  lighting  of  important 
streets  and  places,  may  be  accomplished  by  using  ornamental 
light  posts  with  underground  armored  cable  circuits.  On  minor 
streets,  where  property  has  less  value,  street  lights  may  be  at- 
tached to  thirty  foot  poles,  served  by  loop  lines  from  the  overhead 
lines  in  the  rear  of  the  houses. 

Liability  of  lighting  trouble  and  interruption  of  service  renders 
the  combination  overhead  and  underground  on  the  same  circuit 


280  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

an  undesirable  feature.  It  is  much  better,  as  indicated  above, 
to  put  some  circuits,  in  important  places,  completely  under- 
ground and  others,  in  less  conspicuous  locations,  entirely  over- 
head. 

Secondary  Distribution. — Voltage. — The  service  voltage  for 
house  lighting  and  for  ordinary  household  appliances  has  been 
fixed  by  practice  at  110  volts.  Energy  may  be  supplied  at  this 
voltage  either  by  a  two-wire  circuit  at  110  volts,  or  by  a  three- 
wire  single-phase  circuit,  having  220  volts  between  the  outside 
wires  and  110  volts  between  either  of  the  outside  wires  and  the 
middle  wire.  All  secondary  wiring  should  be  designed  so  that 
the  drop  between  the  transformer  and  any  point  on  the  distrib- 
uting lines  will  not  exceed  three  volts,  a  maximum  of  two  volts 
being  allowed  in  the  house  connections. 

Pole  Lines. — The  secondary  distribution  wiring  is  usually  car- 
ried on  the  same  poles  as  the  primary  distribution  circuits  when- 
ever these  will  serve.  For  this  purpose  additional  cross-arms 
may  be  required,  or  the  secondary  wires  may  be  carried  on  racks 
on  the  side  of  poles.  It  is  sometimes  desirable  to  distinguish 
between, the  primary  and  secondary  wiring,  either  by  character- 
istic construction  or  by  using  different  colored  insulators,  in  order 
that  linemen  may  work  on  the  lines  without  unnecessary  risks. 
The  standardized  rules  of  the  "National  Electric  Code"  of  the 
National  Board  of  Fire  Underwriters  and  the  National  Electric 
Safety  Code,  and  the  laws  and  regulations  of  state  and  municipal 
authorities  should  be  consulted  and  followed  for  the  purpose  of 
conforming  in  these  matters  to  the  public  policy  in  force. 

It  will  probably  be  necessary  to  set  additional  poles  for  second- 
ary distribution  wiring  in  order  to  shorten  the  service  leads  from 
the  pole  to  the  consumer's  premises.  These  poles  usually  need 
not  be  so  high  as  those  carrying  primary  distribution  lines  and 
need  not  carry  cross-arms,  and  are  consequently  less  expensive. 
Where  the  arrangement  of  buildings  is  such  as  to  permit  the 
same,  secondary  circuit  or  service  connection  may  be  carried 
directly  from  one  building  to  the  next,  and  thus  serve  a  number 
of  buildings.  It  is  questionable  whether  the  use  of  A-frames  for 
carrying  secondary  lines  over  houses  is  as  practicable  as  carrying 
the  wires  on  brackets  attached  to  the  houses.  This  latter  prac- 
tice is  quite  general  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia,  and  was  ex- 
tensively followed  by  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  in  its 
housing  work  with  satisfactory  results. 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE  281 

Underground. — If  primary  distribution  is  underground,  the 
step-down  transformers  will  be  located  in  manholes  and  the 
secondary  distribution  will  also  be  underground.  A  single  con- 
duit system  may  serve  for  both  primary  and  secondary  distribu- 
tion, but  if  the  street  is  very  wide  this  results  in  long  service  or 
lateral  connections,  which  may  justify  the  construction  of  a  par- 
allel conduit  line  on  the  opposite  side  of  the  street,  for  the  purpose 
of  carrying  secondary  distribution  only. 

Services. — Whether  a  separate  service  connection  is  necessary 
for  each  individual  consumer  or  not  will  depend  largely  upon 
the  arrangement  and  density  of  the  buildings  to  be  served. 
Under  certain  conditions  a  single  service  connection  may  serve 
several  buildings,  the  buildings  being  connected  by  intermediate 
connections  through  frames  on  the  side  walls,  or  through  the 
basement  walls,  or  by  overhead  wires  or  brackets  attached  to 
the  bouses.  This  single  service  for  two  or  more  has  the  disad- 
vantage that  an  interruption  to  a  single  service  connection  will 
cripple  the  service  to  all  the  buildings  which  it  supplies. 

Illustration  of  Types  of  Distribution. — Poles  located  on  streets 
are  an  eye  sore.  Unsightly  poles  destroy  an  otherwise  beautiful 
vista.  The  advisability  of  elimination  from  the  streets  resolves 
itself  into  this  question:  Are  the  advantages  obtained  by  the 
removal  of  the  poles  from  the  streets  commensurate  with  the 
added  cost? 

There  are  several  wa}rs  by  which  this  may  be  done.  Many  of 
the  overhead  wires  may  be  eliminated  from  the  street  by  carrying 
all  wires,  except  those  required  for  street  lighting,  on  poles  at 
the  rear  of  the  buildings  in  easements  or  alleys.  Poles  may  be 
excluded  from  the  rear  of  the  buildings,  by  carrying  the  wires  on 
brackets  attached  to  the  rear  wall  of  the  buildings  thereby  also 
making  a  financial  saving.  Such  use  of  brackets  is  advantageous 
when  grouping  of  houses  permits.  They  are  not  only  less  un- 
sightly than  pole  lines,  but  also  effect  a  saving.  The  following 
paragraphs  illustrate  the  estimated  amounts  of  the  differences 
in  cost  by  use  of  several  methods  of  construction. 

Noreg  Village. — Comparative  studies  and  estimates  were  made 
by  the  Housing  Division  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation  in 
connection  with  this  installation  near  Gloucester,  N.  J.,  for  the 
purpose  of  showing  the  differences  in  cost  by  use  of  varying 
methods  of  distribution  of  circuits.  Service  was  to  be  supplied 
for  a  village  of  488  houses,  including  street  lighting,  and  power 


282  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

for  the  operation  of  a  small  sewage  pump.  The  costs  given  do 
not  include  transmission  lines  from  a  sub-station  to  the  project. 
The  statements  of  the  various  schemes  and  the  total  estimated 
cost  thereof,  of  all  circuits  and  appurtenances,  as  of  February, 
1919,  were  as  follows: 

Scheme  A. — With  street  lighting  and  primary  wires  carried  on  the 
poles  on  the  streets,  secondary  wires  on  pole  lines  in  rear  of  houses,  in 
conformity  with  local  practice;  estimated  cost  $17,600. 

Scheme  B. — Arrangement  same  as  above,  except  secondary  circuits 
carried  on  house  brackets,  instead  of  pole  lines  in  easements;  estimated 
cost  $13,800. 

Scheme  C. — Street  lighting  circuits  on  poles  on  streets,  primary  and 
secondary  domestic  circuits  on  poles  in  rear;  estimated   cost   $19,800 

Scheme  D. — Same  as  above,  except  house  lighting,  secondary  circuits 
carried  on  house  brackets;  estimated  cost  $16,400. 

Sche?ne  E. — Street  lighting  circuits  using  cable  in  fibre  duct,  primary 
and  secondary  house  lighting  circuits,  on  poles  in  rear  of  houses;  esti- 
mated cost  $25,800;  armored  cable  instead  of  fibre  ducts  would  cost 
$900.00  less. 

Scheme  F — Arrangement  as  above,  except  secondary  house  lighting 
circuits  on  bracket  construction ;  estimated  cost  $22,400. 

UTILIZATION 

The  applications  of  electricity  to  the  service  of  any  community 
may  be  classified  as  street  lighting,  house  lighting  and  the  various 
forms  of  power  use. 

Street  Lighting. — History. — Numerous  forms  and  types  of 
lighting  units  have  been  employed  from  time  to  time  in  street 
lighting.  The  earliest  was  the  open  carbon  arc,  using  solid 
carbons;  this  was  later  superseded  by  the  enclosed  carbon  arc, 
which  had  the  advantage  of  a  longer  burning  period.  Other 
types  of  arc  lamps  have  been  developed,  including  the  magnetite 
lamp  and  other  forms  of  flaming  arcs  of  greater  illuminating 
power  and  higher  efficiency. 

The  incandescent  lamp  has  also  been  developed  to  compete 
with  the  arc  lamps  for  street  lighting,  but  these  were  later  super- 
seded by  the  tungsten  filament,  "Mazda  B"  or  vacuum  type, 
which  was  in  turn  supplanted  by  the  gas  filled  "Mazda  C" 
type  of  tungsten  lamp.  This  latter  type  has  an  efficiency  as 
high  as  one-half  watt  per  candle  and  is  rapidly  replacing  all  other 
forms  of  units  for  street  lighting.     Because  of  their  smaller  candle 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE  283 

power  and  cheapness,  incandescent  lamps  permit  of  varied  use 
and  much  greater  flexibility  in  application  than  is  possible  with 
arc  lamps.  A  larger  number  of  small  size  units  may  be  used  to 
secure  uniform  illumination  and  greater  attention  may  be  paid 
to  the  decorative  effect. 

Too  much  attention  cannot  be  given  to  the  street  lighting 
problem  in  housing  developments,  as  the  choice  of  street  light- 
ing system  very  often  dictates  the  type  of  distribution  which 
shall  be  used,  and  thus  the  effect  upon  the  street  appearance. 

Methods. — The  methods  of  supplying  power  to  street  lamps 
may  be  classified  under  constant  potential  (or  multiple)  and  con- 
stant current  (or  series)  systems.  In  the  constant  potential 
system,  the  illuminating  units  on  any  one  circuit  are  connected 
in  parallel  precisely  as  in  residence  lighting.  This  system  is 
rarely  used  except  in  special  cases  of  very  short  lines,  the  chief 
objection  being  the  large  amount  of  copper  required.  This  fea- 
ture was  early  recognized  and  constant  current  systems  have  been 
developed  to  permit  the  use  of  a  small  sized  conductor  by  connect- 
ing the  various  units  on  any  one  circuit  in  series.  In  this  later 
system,  any  of  the  various  types  of  arc  or  series  incandescent 
lamps  may  be  used. 

Constant  Current. — In  the  constant  current  system,  a  trans- 
former automatically  controls  the  voltage  of  the  lamp  circuit 
to  maintain  constant  current,  regardless  of  the  number  of  lamps 
burning.  When  a  lamp  burns  out,  an  automatic  device,  located 
in  the  socket  of  each  lamp,  maintains  the  continuity  of  the 
circuit. 

Until  recent  years  it  was  the  custom  to  employ  long  circuits 
leading  from  the  constant  current  transformers  in  the  power 
station  through  a  large  number  of  lamps  and  back  to  the 
transformer,  thus  making  a  high  voltage  necessary  to  light  all 
lamps  to  their  normal  brilliancy.  The  objections  to  this  method 
were : 

(a)  High  cost,  due  to  the  necessity  of  running  separate  wires  for 
each  circuit  from  a  central  point. 

(b)  The  danger  from  coming  in  contact  with  poles  or  lamps  when 
the  line  becomes  grounded. 

(c)  That  any  accident  to   the  automatic  lamp  cutout  or  break  in 
circuit  puts  all  lamps  on  that  circuit  out  of  commission. 

To  overcome  these  objections  a  method  has  been  developed, 
in  which  the  lamp  current  is  derived  from  a  5  to  10  K.V.A.  con- 


284  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

stant  current  transformer,  from  the  2300  volt  constant  po- 
tential network.  These  constant  current  transformers  feed 
25  to  50  lamps  on  short  loops  of  relatively  low  voltage.  The 
advantages  are: 

(a)  Lower  cost,  due  to  the  use  of  the  general  distribution  system. 

(b)  In  case  of  accident  to  automatic  lamp  cutout  or  low  voltage 
cable  break,  only  a  small  number  of  lamps  will  be  out  of  commission. 

Types  of  Lamps. — Where  a  new  installation  is  to  be  made  and 
latitude  in  design  is  not  restricted  by  existing  conditions,  the  recom- 
mended type  of  installation  is  the  highly  efficient,  high  intensity 
gas-filled  incandescent  lamps.  This  may  be  used  in  either  con- 
stant potential  or  constant  current  systems  and  is  favored  for 
reasons  of  economy  and  better  illuminating  effects.  The  lamps 
are  made  in  candle  power  ranging  from  50  to  1000. 

Present  practice  indicates  a  tendency  towards  the  ultimate 
replacement  of  all  arc  lighting  units  by  some  one  of  the  incan- 
descent types.  This  is  largely  accounted  for  by  the  lesser  first 
cost,  low  maintenance  and  more  satisfactory  illumination  of  the 
incandescent  type.  Maximum  illumination  value  can  be  ob- 
tained by  those  lamps  which  throw  most  of  their  light  15 
degrees  below  the  horizontal,  and  a  minimum  almost  upward  or 
downward. 

Spacing. — Street  lighting  in  general,  aside  from  the  type  of 
unit  employed,  has  undergone  remarkable  changes  in  recent 
years.  Formerly  the  system  of  "spot-lighting",  by  locating 
units  at  each  street  intersection  was  deemed  sufficient.  The 
present  practice  indicates,  for  business  as  well  as  the  residential 
district,  a  more  uniform  street  illumination.  This  can  best  be 
obtained  by  using  a  larger  number  of  smaller  intensity  units, 
spaced  anywhere  from  100  ft.  to  250  ft.  apart.  These  are  pref- 
erably arranged  on  each  side  of  the  street,  either  opposite  each 
other  or  in  staggered  rows. 

The  spacing  and  intensity  of  the  lamp  should  be  varied  to  suit 
the  requirements.  Good  practice  in  this  respect  is  indicated  by 
the  following:  In  business  districts,  250  candle  power  lights, 
spaced  from  100  to  200  feet  apart;  or  400  candle  power  lights, 
spaced  from  200  to  400  feet  apart.  In  residence  districts,  100 
candle  power  lights,  spaced  from  100  to  300  feet  apart;  or  250 
candle  power  lights,  spaced  from  200  to  400  feet  apart. 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE  285 

Poles. — In  the  early  days  of  street  lighting  1  he  entire  distribut- 
ing system  was  located  on  pole  lines  in  the  street,  in  preference 
to  alleys  and  side  streets,  in  order  that  a  convenient  mounting 
might  be  obtained  for  the  lighting  units.  This  is  no  longer  con- 
sidered necessary,  as  where  proper  street  illumination  requires 
closer  spacing  and  more  ornamental  effect,  there  can  be  no  reason- 
able grounds  for  retaining  the  pole  lines  in  the  streets.  The 
light  standard  may  be  served  from  distributing  lines  on  alley  or 
easement  location,  either  by  individual  overhead  loops  or 
armored  cable  in  shallow  trenches  along  property  lines. 

Various  types  of  lighting  standards  or  posts  may  be  used,  con- 
sisting of  finished  wood,  concrete  or  steel  poles;  the  latter  two 
being  designed  for  ornamental  effect.  These  poles  range  any- 
where from  10  ft.  to  30  ft.  in  height,  depending  upon  the  spacing 
and  the  intensity  of  illumination  desired.  Poles  may  frequently 
be  made  relatively  inconspicuous  where  necessarily  placed  on 
streets,  by  locating  them  next  to  the  curb  in  the  planting  space 
and  wires  supported  at  such  a  height  as  to  pass  under  the  limbs 
of  trees. 

Transformers. — When  overhead  loops  are  used  for  the  lamp 
circuits,  they  are  served  from  constant  current  transformers 
mounted  on  the  poles;  if  the  distributing  system  is  underground 
the  transformers  are  located  in  manholes.  If  these  constant 
current  transformers  are  served  by  short  separate  2300  volt 
circuits,  terminating  at  the  substation  or  some  municipal  build- 
ing, where  attendance  is  available,  the  lights  are  controlled 
by  manually  operated  switches.  Otherwise,  the  control  is  by 
an  automatic  switch  actuated  by  a  clock,  installed  at  the 
transformer. 

Residence  Service. — Lighting. — House  lighting  at  the  present 
time  has  become  well  standardized,  in  that  each  house  is  provided 
with  a  two  wire  system  and  is  served  by  a  pair  of  110  volt  service 
lines.  In  larger  buldings,  the  three  wire  110-220  volt  system  is 
commonly  installed  because  a  saving  in  copper  is  secured  by  its 
use.  In  this  case  a  three  wire  service  is  required.  Either  service 
may  terminate  in  the  basement  or  the  upper  floor  of  the  house 
where  the  meter  and  cutout  panel  are  located. 

The  average  unit  for  most  residential  lighting  is  the  25  watt 
tungsten  lamp  and  the  power  consumption  for  the  average  six 
or  eight  room  dwelling  will  be  from  10  to  20  kilowatt  hours  per 
month. 


286  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Power  Application. — In  the  average  residential  development, 
power  applications  are  usually  limited  to  small  fractional  horse 
power  motors  for  washing,  ironing,  cleaning,  and  cooking  and 
heating  appliances  of  various  kinds.  These,  in  the  majority  of 
cases,  may  be  served  from  the  low  voltage  distribution  system. 
In  the  case  of  small  shops  and  industrial  applications  requiring 
larger  motors,  the  service  is  direct  from  the  2300  volt  distribution 
system. 

The  largest  size  motor  to  be  supplied  from  either  of  these 
systems  depends  largely  upon  the  policy  of  the  public  service 
company  furnishing  the  current  and  is  governed  by  the  maximum 
allowable  voltage  disturbance  which  a  given  size  motor  will 
produce.  There  may  be  other  installations  used,  such  as  battery 
charging  stations,  school  and  industrial  laboratories,  etc.,  but 
these  do  not  in  general  call  for  special  service  or  conduits. 

Miscellaneous  Service. — Fire  and  Police  Call. — For  either  fire 
alarm  or  police  call  systems,  it  is  customary  to  purchase  one  of 
the  several  standard  systems  which  are  on  the  market.  The 
installation  of  these  may  involve  overhead  or  underground  wiring, 
and  logically  follows  the  practice  which  may  have  been  used  in 
laying  out  the  street  lighting  system. 

The  wiring  may  be  looped  from  the  call  boxes  by  underground 
cable,  overhead  to  alley  or  easement  pole  line  construction.  Or 
it  may  be  carried  underground  in  the  same  conduit  system  with 
the  lighting  circuits,  if  this  plan  be  used  for  general  distribution. 

Telephone  and  Telegraph. — After  having  determined  upon  the 
design  and  location  of  the  various  lighting  and  power  distribution 
systems,  the  telephone  and  telegraph  wires  and  cable  logically 
follow  the  same  scheme.  Lead  covered  telephone  cable  may  be 
carried  on  main  distributing  pole  lines,  with  clearance  according 
to  the  requirements  of  the  telephone  company  under  whose  juris- 
diction the  work  may  be  done.  The  cable  is  usually  carried 
to  sectional  centers,  from  which  twisted  pairs  are  run  to  the  sub- 
scribers on  racks  on  the  low  voltage  distributing  poles,  or  in 
some  cases  are  distributed  along  the  rear  of  the  houses  themselves. 

Large  installations,  involving  a  great  amount  of  telegraph  dis- 
tribution, make  use  of  the  telephone  wires  for  this  purpose,  involv- 
ing the  simultaneous  use  of  the  wires  for  both  telephone 
and  telegraph.  In  any  case  the  same  system  of  poles  or  conduits 
can  be  used  for  telegraph  distribution  as  is  planned  for  the  tele- 
phone system. 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE  287 

PLANS  AND   SPECIFICATIONS 

In  the  preparation  of  plans  for  a  proposed  electrical  system 
in  any  housing  development,  the  drawings  should  show  clearly 
the  whole  system,  by  distinctive  lines  and  symbols,  including 
street,  block  and  lot  linos  and  location  of  houses. 

Instruction  for  Plans. — The  general  plan  should  show  the 
following: 

1.  Location  of  the  various  circuits,  and  type  of  construction,  as  over- 
head or  underground. 

2.  Location  of  poles,  giving  height  and  location  of  guys. 

3.  Location  of  substations  or  transformer  stations. 

4.  Location  of  street  lights,  size  and  type  of  lamp. 

5.  Location  and  kind  of  house  circuits. 

6.  Voltage,  size  and  number  of  wires. 

7.  Location,  capacity  and  type  of  transformers,  primary  circuit, 
branch  line  cutouts. 

8.  Location  of  lighting  arresters,  and  secondary  circuit  branches. 

9.  Location,  kind  and  number  of  ducts  of  underground  lines,  together 
with  the  location  of  all  manholes,  junction  boxes  and  connections. 

10.  Location  of  police  and  fire  alarm  signal  boxes;  all  wiring  for  same. 

11.  Location  of  telephone  cables  and  twisted  pair  house  service 
connections. 

12.  Detailed  plans  should  likewise  be  prepared,  showing  the  design 
and  arrangement  to  be  followed  in  overhead  and  underground  construc- 
tion, house  line  circuts,  transformer  mountings,  street  lighting  fixtures, 
manholes,  junction  boxes,  and  other  appurtenances. 

13.  There  should  also  be  detailed  drawings  of  the  substations  or 
transformer  stations  required,  showing  all  apparatus  in  and  about 
the  station,  the  detailed  layout,  with  complete  switchboard  and  station- 
wiring  diagrams. 

Specifications. — Where  the  installation  is  made  by  a  utility 
company  as  an  extension  of  the  existing  system,  the  general 
practice  in  regard  to  construction  features  can  be  followed,  pro- 
vided satisfactory  results  can  be  secured.  Where  a  new  instal- 
lation is  to  be  made,  the  construction  specifications  should  be  in 
detail,  so  as  to  insure  satisfactory  workmanship,  materials  and 
methods. 

Such  specifications  should  bo  built  around  the  general  plans 
outlined  above,  should  cover  in  detail  all  the  construction  and 
installation  requirements  common  to  the  best  work.  Quality 
and  depth  of  setting,  cross-arms  and  pin,  details  of  poles;   size 


288  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

and  insulation  of  wire,  types  and  size  of  insulators,  details  of 
other  units  shown  on  plans  should  all  be  carefully  specified. 

Specifications  covering  street  lighting  should  give  details  of 
pole  construction  and  spacing,  the  type  and  method  of  burying 
underground  trench  cable  and  method  of  attachment  to  pole 
lines.  The  size  of  units  in  candle  power  for  the  different  street 
locations  should  be  indicated  and  an  illumination  curve  showing 
the  intensity  of  street  illumination  at  different  points  between 
units  should  be  provided. 

ILLUSTRATIONS  OF  INSTALLATIONS 

The  general  practice  followed  by  the  Housing  Division  of  the 
United  States  Shipping  Board,  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation 
in  several  typical  examples  of  electrical  installations  will  be 
illustrated  by  the  plans  of  layouts  at  Buckman  Village,  Chester, 
Pa.  and  at  Atlantic  Heights  Development  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H. 
There  is  also  described  a  layout  for  Loveland  Farms,  con- 
structed for  the  Youngstown  Sheet  &  Tube  Company  about  the 
same  time. 

Buckman  Village. — The  installation  at  Buckman  Village,  which 
is  illustrated  in  Fig.  40,  was  so  arranged  that  to  a  large  extent 
the  various  circuits  were  carried  on  pole  lines,  located  along  the 
alleys  in  the  rear  of  the  houses.     The  2400  volt  primary  circuit 
was  extended  from  the  existing  system  of  the  utility  company, 
and  enters  the  project  on  a  pole  line,  located  on  the  main  ap- 
proach streets.     The  appearance  of  the  project  in  this  vicinity, 
which  otherwise  has  many  very  attractive  features,  is  depreciated 
to  a  considerable  extent.     In  this  case  it  was  impossible  to  incur 
the  additional  expense  of  placing  the  incoming  line  underground. 
The  primary  line  extended  from   Keystone  Street,   a  short 
distance  from  Eleventh  Street,  to  an  alley  running  parallel  to 
the  longer  axis  of  the  development  and  lying  between  Keystone 
Road  and  Meadow  Lane.     It  is  carried  along  this  alley  to  Twelfth 
Street  and  thence  up  Twelfth  Street  to  the  boundary  of  the  prop- 
erty.    The  location  of  the  pole  line  on  Twelfth  Street  is  unim- 
portant, as  the  layout  is  such  that  the  houses  do  not  front  on  this 
street.     The  domestic  secondary  circuit  is  taken  off  the  overhead 
primary  line  and  run  on  poles  located  in  the  various  alleys, 
then  over  to  the  rear  of  the  houses  and  thence  distributed  on 
house  brackets.     This  latter  arrangement  is  economical,  owing 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE 


289 


to  the  fact  that  buildings  are  of  the  row  type,  and  the  necessity 
for  frequent  service  connections  from  the  pole  line  is  thus  obvi- 
ated. 


I^^S 


The  street  lighting  circuits  are  carried  on  the  same  pole  line  as 
the  primary  and  secondary  domestic  circuits.  Where  the  latter 
lines  are  not  located  on  the  streets,  the  light  connection  was  made 
by  running  overhead  loops  from  the  pole  lines  in  the  easements 
to  the  street.   '  The  loop  lines  were  so  located  as  to  pass  between 

19 


290 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


groups  of  buildings.  Except  where  the  poles  were  located  on 
the  approach  streets  to  the  project,  the  general  effect  of  the  in- 
stallation is  very  satisfactory  from  the  standpoint  of  appearance 
and  at  the  same  time  no  additional  cost  was  incurred  in  placing 
the  wires  underground. 

Atlantic  Heights. — The  installation  at  Portsmouth,  N.  H., 
while  similar  in  many  respects  to  the  one  just  described,  had 
these  differences.     The  primary  lines  were  kept  off  the  streets 

fen*  cs  dh\ 


p         Pole  Location 
*         250  C.  P.  Type?  C  Maz  da 
Lamp  on  10  'Mast  Arm 

— 2300  Volt  Primary  Line  2~*G 

Wire  Single  Phase 

"5/230  Secondary  Buss  Line 

3 -#  6  Wire    _       . 
-         Series  Street  Lighf'mgttewire 
— x— x-  Underground  Cabled  Lead 
Covered;  5000  Volt 
A         Transformer  Location 
Service  Connections-  to  2  Family 

Houses  2- #8 Wire 
Service  Connections  to  Block  Mouses^- 


HOTE:  Connection  madeto 
'  2300  volt  primary  fines  of 
' 7  Rockingham  County  Light 
'  a  Power  Co.  Northwest  and 
Maplewood  Ave.  about  /j 
Wj-re~  miles  from  development 


Fig.  41. — Plan  of  electrical  distribution  system  of  the  Portsmouth,  N.  H. 
housing  project  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation. 

entirely  and  located  in  easements  in  the  rear  of  the  houses,  as 
alleys  were  not  provided.  The  house  services  were  extended 
from  the  poles  in  the  rear  instead  of  being  carried  on  brackets, 
this  being  preferable,  since  many  of  the  houses  were  of  the  semi- 
detached type. 

Connections  to  the  street  lights  were  made  by  extending  the 
overhead  construction  from  the  points  where  the  lighting  circuits 
crossed  the  streets,  and  sometimes  by  looping  out  from  the  pole 


GAS  AND  ELECTRIC  SERVICE 


291 


lines  on  the  easements.  Therefore,  some  poles  and  short  runs 
of  overhead  construction  are  placed  on  the  streets,  but  they  are 
so  few  as  to  be  relatively  insignificant  and  do  not  detract  from 


the  general  satisfactory  appearance.  Street  lights  are  of  100 
candle  power,  of  the  series  incandescent  type,  carried  on  brackets 
attached  to  wooden  poles. 


292  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Underground  construction  was  used  for  carrying  the  street 
lighting  circuits  of  Kearsarge  Street  and  Treble  Way,  so  as  to 
avoid  affecting  the  appearance  of  this  intersection,  at  which  point 
there  is  a  small  park.  The  plan  of  the  arrangement  can  be  ex- 
amined in  the  illustration  shown  in  Fig.  41. 

Loveland  Farms. — The  features  of  the  installation  made  for  a 
housing  development  for  the  skilled  employees  of  an  industrial 
corporation  at  Youngstown,  Ohio,  known  as  the  Loveland  Farms 
Development,  are  of  interest,  because  of  the  attractiveness  ob- 
tained without  unduly  adding  to  the  cost.  The '  primary  and 
secondary  house  lighting  circuits  were  carried  entirely  on  pole 
lines,  located  in  the  easements  in  the  rear  of  the  houses,  and  there 
are  no  poles  on  the  streets  except  where  these  lines  make  crossings. 

The  street  lighting  system  is  supplied  by  underground  series 
circuits,  ten  in  number,  each  feeding  approximately  31  lamps 
spaced  from  125  to  150  feet  apart.  The  street  lighting  primary 
lines  of  2300  volts,  3-phase,  60  cycle  current  were  carried  on  the 
same  poles  which  carried  the  house  lighting  circuits.  The  sec- 
ondary street  lighting  circuits  were  of  armored  cable,  laid  without 
the  use  of  conduit,  in  narrow  trenches  about  15  in.  deep,  located 
between  the  curb  and  the  sidewalk.  The  arrangement  of  the 
street  lighting  circuit  and  light  locations,  is  shown  in  Fig.  42. 


CHAPTER  X 
HOUSES  FOR  FAMILIES 

Standards  and  Requirements — Types  and  Grouping  of 
Houses  and  Accessories — Building  Technique — Deter- 
mination of  Accommodations  Required 

Introduction. — What  is  a  Home?  Adams,  in  "Housing  Prob- 
lems in  America,"  answers  "It  is  not  a  mere  place  of  shelter  in 
modern  democracy.  It  must  provide  conditions  that  will  pro- 
mote efficiency  in  labor  and  strength  of  character  in  citizenship." 
Going  further,  he  says  "The  home  connotes  the  family;  and  the 
family  and  not  the  individual  is  the  unit  of  the  civil  structure. 
A  true  housing  policy  must  go  further  than  improving  or  pro- 
viding dwellings,  it  must  be  a  part  of  a  comprehensive  policy  of 
town  and  country  development." 

If  these  views  are  accepted — and  they  would  seem  to  be  above 
dispute — then  we  will  realize  how  important  is  the  problem  of 
offering  suggestions  which  may  serve  as  a  guide  in  the  producing 
of  better  dwellings  to  serve  as  homes.  What  then  is  necessary 
to  "provide  conditions  that  will  promote  efficiency  in  labor  and 
strength  of  character  in  citizenship"?  Primarily,  a  house  in 
which  it  will  be  possible  for  such  conditions  to  exist  as  well  as 
promote  human  welfare:  this  states  the  minimum  requirements 
of  an  industrial  worker's  dwelling. 

Various  opinions  concerning  these  minimum  requirements 
have  been  expressed  and,  if  nothing  more  came  therefrom,  they 
have  at  least  served  to  stimulate  thought  upon  the  matter,  by 
enlivening  discussion  on  the  part  of  deeply  interested  people. 
We  propose  in  this  chapter  to  consider  some  of  them. 

STANDARDS  AND  REQUIREMENTS 

Basis  for  Standards. — Before  attempting  to  list  suggested 
standards,  we  must  keep  in  mind  certain  basic  factors  which  have 
a  determining  influence. 

293 


294  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Permissible  Rental. — In  a  housing  development,  built  for  rental 
purposes,  the  relation  of  the  sum  the  wage  earner  can  afford  to 
pay,  to  the  amount  of  the  investment,  offers  a  serious  difficulty 
in  arriving  at  minimum  requirements.  If  standards  are  sug- 
gested that  will  fully  realize  ideals  as  to  what  the  home  should 
offer,  the  cost  will  be  so  high  that  even  a  modest  profit  on  the 
money  invested  will  place  the  rental  beyond  what  the  wage 
earners  can  afford  to  pay.  Whereas,  if  the  standard  be  deter- 
mined by  the  rental  within  the  reach  of  the  working  man,  then 
the  conveniences  and  accommodations  offered  will  be  below 
what  should  be  considered  adequate,  and  we  will  have  failed  to 
meet  the  problem.  The  conditions  are  equally  puzzling  in  the 
development  built  for  sales. 

When  the  subject  is  looked  squarely  in  the  face,  we  find  there 
are  but  two  ways  out  of  the  difficulty;  either  (1)  reduction  in  the 
cost  of  building  to  the  workmen,  or,  (2)  rise  in  income  which 
will  allow  the  man  to  pay  more  rent.  Individual  industries  may 
solve  their  own  problems  by  writing  off  enough  of  the  investment 
to  bring  the  relationship  to  a  normal  basis.  This,  however,  does 
not  dispose  of  the  question  as  far  as  the  masses  are  concerned. 
Assistance  from  governmental  sources  has  been  suggested,  but 
has  not  been  favorably  received.  Regardless  of  how  solution 
may  be  affected,  the  standard  must  be  such  as  to  provide  for  the 
safety,  health  and  comfort  of  the  worker  and  his  family. 

Cost  a  Factor. — The  housing  planned  by  the  Federal  Govern- 
ment for  war  workers  was,  for  the  most  part,  designed  to  serve 
the  skilled  workmen  rather  than  common  labor;  also,  under  the 
stress  of  war,  cost  was  not  so  important  an  element  as  in  pre- 
and  post-war  periods. 

Housing  for  the  skilled  worker  does  not  offer  serious  difficulties; 
it  may  be  considered  as  fairly  well  solved  in  many  instances. 
It  is  suitable  housing  for  unskilled  labor  that  is  causing  the 
greatest  concern  at  the  present  time.  The  laborer's  family 
on  the  average  is  as  large  and  in  many  cases  larger  than  that  of 
the  skilled  worker.  High  cost  of  food,  clothing,  fuel  and  the 
necessities  of  life  are  the  same  for  the  former  as  the  latter. 
Frequently,  therefore,  the  difference  in  wage  scale  is  reflected 
in  the  contrast  of  living  conditions,  which  is  unfortunate  and 
profoundly  affects  the  stability  of  our  industrial  life.  How 
then  can  the  essentials  Of  decency  and  hygiene,  not  to  speak  of 
the  so-called  luxuries,  be  provided  for  the  unskilled  worker  and 


HOUSES  FOR  FAMILIES  295 

his  family,  to  the  point  required,  if  contentment  and  happiness 
are  to  prevail?  This  is  the  great  problem  of  Industrial  Housing 
and  in  its  solution  lies  in  great  measure  the  safety  of  our  whole 
social  structure.  Chapter  II  discusses  this  problem  in  general. 
In  this  chapter  the  savings  in  house  details  and  appurtenances 
which  will  promote  the  desired  result  will  be  considered. 

Other  Influences  on  Standards. — Building  codes,  housing  laws 
and  similar  restricting  ordinances,  where  existent,  will  and  do 
affect  standard  requirements.  Where  unduly  onerous — and  in 
some  cases  this  is  true — attempt  may  well  be  made  to  modify 
some  unnecessary  features  thereof.  In  addition,  there  are 
purely  fabricative  considerations.  For  instance,  the  house  must 
be  a  sound  shelter  from  the  elements;  it  must  be  substantial  and 
subject  to  as  little  deterioration  as  possible;  it  must  afford  a 
proper  amount  of  light  and  ventilation,  and  must  contain  neces- 
sary equipment  for  lighting  and  heating  and  sanitation. 

Standards  from  Experience. — As  a  means  of  determining  what 
the  workers  really  want,  one  large  concern  circulated  question- 
naires throughout  three  of  its  developments  representing  a  total 
of  five  hundred  houses.  These  included  a  number  of  items  for 
the  purpose  of  developing  what  the  people  desired  in  general 
plan,  arrangement,  number  of  rooms,  character  of  rooms,  and 
extent  of  convenience  required.  The  interviewer  also  observed 
what  furniture  the  average  tenant  owned,  and  received  what 
suggestions  the  people  had  to  offer  which,  to  their  minds,  would 
make  the  houses  more  satisfactory.  From  a  study  of  these 
questionnaires  the  following  points  have  been  noted: 

First. — The  average  size  house  desired  is  between  5  and  6  rooms. 

.Second. — Small  kitchens  or  kitchenettes  are  objectionable.  Kit- 
chens large  enough  for  general  dining  purposes  are  preferred.  Even  the 
tenants  of  better  grade  houses,  in  which  separate  dining  rooms  were 
provided,  dined  a  portion  of  the  time  in  the  kitchen.  In  the  few  houses 
where  provided,  combined  dining  and  living  rooms  were  held  in  disfavor; 
in  many  of  these  cases,  the  people  managed  to  use  some  other  room  for 
dining,  although  such  space  was  manifestly  too  small,  and  resulted  in 
serious  crowding. 

Third. — Built-in  features,  such  as  buffet,  china-closets  and  bookcases, 
are  not  generally  desired,  except  in  the  higher  grade  houses,  because 
most  tenants  have  furniture  which  serves  the  same  purpose;  and  such 
attached  facilities  result  in  a  lack  of  space  for  furniture.  The  addition 
of  these,  moreover,  is  to  be  discouraged  upon  the  standpoint  of  cost. 
While  aware  that  arguments  have  been  advanced  in  favor  of  these  built- 


296  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

in  features,  on  the  basis  that  they  permit  a  saving  on  the  part  of  tenant 
by  relieving  him  of  the  necessity  of  the  purchase  of  furniture,  the  reasons 
for  their  omission  are  of  great  weight. 

Fourth. — Objections  are  raised  to  single  bedrooms;  many  people  using 
double  beds  only.  When  only  two  bedrooms  are  provided,  they  should 
be  double  rooms;  when  three  or  more  are  used,  it  is  rarely  safe  to  plan 
more  than  one  single  room,  except  in  houses  of  eight  or  nine  rooms  and 
houses  designed  for  lodgers. 

Fifth. — Objection  is  raised  to  having  the  refrigerator  in  the  basement; 
a  space  convenient  to,  but  not  in  the  kitchen,  being  requested. 

Sixth. — A  grade  entrance  to  a  landing  on  the  stairs,  running  from  the 
first  floor  to  basement,  is  favorably  commented  upon.  Refrigerator 
space  may  be  arranged  off  this  landing  as  an  added  convenience. 

Seventh. — If  the  cellar  contains  a  furnace,  it  has  been  found  that,  in 
order  to  keep  fruit  and  vegetables,  a  space  should  be  partitioned  off 
for  this  purpose.  This  compartment  should  have  no  window,  but 
should  have  outside  ventilation  by  running  a  2-in.  gas  pipe  through 
the  wall  and  placing  a  wire  netting  on  the  inside,  to  prevent  insects 
and  mice  from  entering.  Where  porch  foundations  are  constructed  of 
masonry  walls,  this  space  forms  an  admirable  fruit  closet.  This,  how- 
ever, entails  additional  expense,  as  the  porch  foundation  must  be  run 
down  to  full  cellar  depth,  instead  of  just  below  frost  line,  and  a  doorway 
provided  into  the  cellar. 

Number  of  Rooms. — One  of  the  first  questions  to  arise  in 
designing  houses  for  a  development  is,  what  number  of  rooms 
shall  the  house  contain?  To  follow  the  practice  established  by 
some  other  development  may  result  in  unsatisfactory  conditions. 
Difference  in  character  of  labor  employed,  and  in  conjugal  rela- 
tionship, demands  an  analysis  for  each  development,  and  best 
results  will  be  attained  by  studying  the  social  structure  of  each. 
Great  benefit  will  be  derived  from  a  knowledge  of  the  manner 
in  which  these  problems  have  been  attacked  elsewhere  and  of  the 
line  of  reasoning  which  has  produced  satisfactory  results.  But  a 
careful  discrimination  must  be  made  between  appropriating  the 
processes  of  reasoning  and  accepting  the  results  of  that  process. 

Data  relating  to  the  character  of  labor  employed  and  the 
conjugal  relationship  existing  in  the  separate  families  is  necessary. 
This  is  easily  obtained  in  an  industry  fully  organized.  In  the 
case  of  a  proposed  industry,  however,  information  regarding  the 
personnel  of  the  working  forces  must  be  forecasted  by  comparison 
with  similar  industries.  With  such  information,  it  will  not  be 
difficult  to  choose  the  types  and  grades  which  best  serve  the 
particular  case  under  consideration. 


Ilor SI'S  FOR  FAMILIES 


297 


Furniture  Reqidrements. — To  intelligently  recommend  minimum 
room  sizes,  it  will  be  necessary  to  know  what  they  are  to  contain 
in  the  way  of  furniture.  To  that  end  the  following  list  and  size 
of  furniture  is  offered: 


Living  Room 
Piano:  5'-6"  X  2'-4"  X  4-8" 
Table:  2'-0"  X  3'-6" 
Throe  Chairs:  20"  X  IS"  or 
One  Chair  and  Davenport:  G'-O"  X  2'-4" 

Dining  Room 
Table:  54"  diametei 
Buffet:  o'-0"  X  l'-10" 
Six  Chairs:   10"  X  IS" 


Bed  Room  {Double) 
Double  Bed:  4'-0'f  X  G'-G" 
Dresser:  3'-6"  X  2'-0" 
Other  Piece:  3-0"  X  1-10" 
Two  Chairs:  16"  X  18" 

Single  Bed  Room 
Single  Bed:  3'-0"  X  G'-G" 
Dresser:  3'-6"  X  2'-0" 
Other  Piece:  3'-0"  X  1-10' 
One  Chair:  1G"  X  IS" 


In  addition  to  giving  space  for  the  above  listed  furniture,  the 
wall  space  will  be  interrupted  by  windows,  doors  and  hot  air 
registers. 

Minimum  Room  Sizes.' — In  the  living  room,  dining  room  and 
bedroom,  the  following  minimum  sizes  have  been  prompted  by 
a  careful  study  of  a  large  number  of  satisfactory  plans. 

A  living  room  should  be  at  least  12  ft.  by  14  ft.  exclusive  of 
any  encroachments,  such  as  closet  space  or  portion  of  stairway 
issuing  from  living  room. 

A  dining  room  should  contain  not  less  than  120  sq.  ft.,  with 
10  ft.  the  least  possible  dimension. 

A  double  bed  room  should  contain  not  less  than  120  sq.  ft.,  the 
smallest  dimension  being  not  less  than  9  feet  6  inches. 

A  single  bed  room  should  not  be  less  than  80  sq.  ft.,  the  smallest 
dimension  being  not  less  than  7  ft.  10  inches. 

The  bath  room  should  not  be  less  than  35  sq.  ft.,  with  a  mini- 
mum width  of  5  feet.  In  such  a  room,  the  fixtures  would  be 
placed  along  the  wall  the  long  way  of  the  room.  The  tub,  which 
should  measure  2  ft.  6  in.  by  4  ft.  6  in.,  would  take  2  ft.  6 
in.  space,  plus  1  in.  for  clearance,  or  2  ft.  7  in.;  the  wash 
stand,  measuring  18  in.  by  21  in.,  would  require  2  ft.  0  in. 
wall  space,  and  the  toilet,  measuring  20^  in.,  width  of  low 
down  tank,  would  require  2  ft.  0  in.  wall  space;  or  a  total  length 
of  6  ft.  7  in.,  necessary  wall  space  to  house  fixtures.  This 
permits  •">  ft.  margin  to  work  in,  which  allows  for  irregularities  in 
roughing-in  of  plumbing  or  general  construction. 

The  kitchen  area  depends  on  several  factors.     From  a  survey 


298  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

of  eighteen  house  plans,  in  which  a  separate  dining  room  was 
provided,  it  was  developed  that,  in  an  average  size  house,  about 
seventeen  per  cent,  of  the  entire  first  floor  area  was  used  for  the 
kitchen.  Assuming  a  house  24  ft.  square,  or  576  sq.  ft.  in  area, 
the  allowable  space  for  kitchen  would  be  approximately  98  sq.  ft. 
Being  guided  by  a  further  stipulation  that  the  room  shall  be  not 
less  than  7  ft.  in  width,  the  greatest  possible  perimeter  is  42  feet. 

The  requirements  to  be  met  in  a  kitchen  are:  (a)  a  door  to 
rear  porch;  (6)  a  door  to  dining  room;  (c)  a  door  to  cellar;  (d) 
at  least  one  window  (preferably  in  a  wall  other  than  the  wall 
with  outside  door) ;  (e)  a  kitchen  case  which,  when  no  other  cup- 
board or  pantry  is  provided,  should  measure  5  ft.  in  length; 
(/)  a  standard  sink  and  drip  board,  measuring  5  ft.  in  length ; 
(g)  space  for  stove  which,  when  placed  in  corner  of  room,  requires 
6  ft.  of  wall  space.  These  various  items  require  a  total  of  30  ft. 
of  wall  space  in  a  room  with  42  feet.  The  12  ft.  remaining  is  di- 
vided into  small  spaces  between  the  various  items  listed. 

However,  by  careful  designing,  it  is  often  possible  to  reserve 
enough  of  this  space  for  a  table,  2  ft.  by  3  ft.  It  will  be  seen  that 
in  a  kitchen,  using  the  minimum  width  of  7  ft.,  it  will  be  difficult 
to  place  the  table  so  as  to  sit  around  its  four  sides. 

From  these  observations  it  will  be  apparent  that  the  greatest 
care  is  required  to  design  the  small  kitchen,  and  that  the  use  of  this 
kitchen  for  dining  is  almost  impossible. 

Having  arrived  at  the  minimum  sizes  of  first  floor  rooms  neces- 
sary to  accommodate  average  furniture,  similar  detailed  studies 
may  be  made  for  the  second  floor.  A  summary  of  such  tests 
has  been  made  after  a  review  of  the  tables  giving  data  on  family 
dwellings,  prepared  by  the  United  States  Housing  Corporation, 
and  also  by  a  careful  study  of  its  standard  plans.  The  area  of 
all  bedrooms  and  bath,  excluding  closets,  trunk  rooms,  storage 
spaces  and  stair  halls,  should  be  72^  per  cent,  of  the  total  area 
of  the  second  floor,  measurements  in  all  cases  being  to  inside 
finished  walls.  Should  a  plan  fall  slightly  below  this  percentage, 
it  need  not  necessarily  be  rejected,  and  some  plans  may  be  found 
to  give  higher  percentages;  but,  striking  an  average,  the  plans 
should  realize  the  percentage  given. 

Recommendations  of  Authorities. — Various  views  have  been 
expressed  as  to  what  should  constitute  minimum  requirements 
for  a  satisfactory  house.  That  there  should  be  a  difference  of 
opinion  among  those  who  have  made  a  study  of  the  problem 


HOUSES  FOR  FAMILIES  299 

is  easily  understood  when  we  realize  the  divergent  characteristics 
of  humanity.  Furthermore,  the  varial  ions  represent  unquestion- 
ably views  as  to  different  classes  of  dwellings  desired.  Some  of 
these  are  abstracted  in  the  following  paragraphs. 

Veiller's  Views. — Houses  for  skilled  workers  at  Williamsport, 
Pa.,  Sawyer  Park,  recommended  by  Mr.  Lawrence  Veiller,  Secre- 
tary, National  Housing  Association,  contain  the  following  features : 

Every  house  has  a  well  lighted  and  ventilated  cellar,  with  concrete 
floor  and  a  hot  air  furnace,  with  pipes  to  each  room  on  the  first  and 
second  floors.  Bathroom  has  a  porcelain  tub,  wash  bowl  and  toilet 
fixtures.  Kitchen  has  a  sink  and  porcelain  wash  tub.  Every  house 
has  front  porch  and  an  entrance  to  kitchen.  Houses  are  piped  for  gas 
and  wired  for  electricity;  clothes  closets  are  provided.  In  addition  to 
the  above,  a  kitchen  cabinet  and  a  linen  closet  are  recommended  for 
each  house. 

Groberi 's  Recommendations. — The  opinions  of  William  E.  Groben, 
of  Ballinger  and  Perrot,  Architects,  of  Philadelphia,  Pa.,  are  as 
follows : 

Essentials  for  unskilled,  low  paid  workmen's  houses  are  permanent 
water-tight  construction  of  walls  and  roof ;  sufficient  sunlight  and  ventila- 
tion, and  windows  in  every  room.  Private  toilet,  with  sanitary  water 
closet,  having  sewer  connection;  sink  in  kitchen,  with  running  water  and 
sewer  connection,  are  necessary.  Gas  or  electric  light  and  proper  heat- 
ing apparatus  are  required.  Combination  living  room,  dining  room  and 
kitchen;  bedroom,  large  enough  for  parents  with  infant  children;  bed- 
room for  male  children;  bedroom  for  female  children,  are  the  minimum 
requirements. 

Essentials  for  skilled,  high-paid  workmen's  houses  contain  the  above, 
plus  cast  iron  enameled  bathtub,  with  running  water  and  waste;  wash 
bowl  in  bathroom  with  tub  and  toilet,  with  hot  water  supply;  and  a 
living  room  separate  from  dining  room  and  kitchen. 

Accessories  called  for  as  essentials  by  some  skilled,  higher-paid 
American  workmen  consist  of  cellar,  laundry  tubs,  front  porch,  wall- 
paper and  tiled  bathroom. 

Allen's  Ideas. — The  recommendations  of  Leslie  M.  Allen,  of 
the  Aberthaw  Construction  Company,  contain  the  following 
as  housing  essentials: 

Water-tight  roof,  walls  and  floors;  separate  bedroom  for  parents; 
separate  bedroom  for  male  children  and  for  female  children;  living  room 
for  cooking,  eating  and  general  day  use;  uninterrupted  daylight  and 


300  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

ventilation  through  windows  in  every  room;  suitable  heating  arrange- 
ments; private  toilet  room,  with  sanitary  water  closet  and  sewer  con- 
nection; sink  in  kitchen  with  running  water  fit  for  drinking,  and  waste. 

Further  additions  required  by  the  American  family  are  cellars,  closets, 
bathtubs  with  running  water,  window  screens  and  separate  parlor. 

Desirable  improvements  include  porch  and  veranda;  lavatory  bowl; 
hot  water,  supplied  to  bathtub  and  bowl:  window  shades  and  window 
blinds;  separate  dining  room;  electric  or  gas  lighting;  wall  paper;  and 
laundry  tubs. 

Kilham's  Opinions. — The  views  of  Walter  H.  Kilham,  of 
Kilham  &  Hopkins,  Architects  of  Boston,  are: 

The  question  then  arises  as  to  what  constitutes  fundamentals.  I 
should  say  light  and  air,  hot  and  cold  water;  facilities  for  bathtubs,  even 
at  the  expense  of  leaving  out  a  wash  bowl.  Refrigerator  space;  and  as 
many  bedrooms  as  possible.  I  should  not  so  class  furnaces,  piazzas, 
fireplaces,  parlors  separate  from  the  kitchen,  nor  set  wash  bowls.  I 
am  not  so  sure  of  the  necessity  of  set  washtubs  in  these  days  of  wet  wash 
laundries.  Kitchens  must  have  accommodations  for  simple  stock  of 
groceries,  either  in  pantry  or  in  a  cabinet  of  some  sort. 

U.  S.  Dept.  Labor  Standards.— The  following  were  promul- 
gated by  a  committee  of  architects  and  civicists: 

Row  or  group  houses  normally  not  to  be  more  than  two  rooms  deep; 
no  living  quarters  in  basement ;  every  bedroom  to  have  a  clothes  closet; 
every  room  to  have  at  least  one  window  opening  directly  to  the  exterior; 
minimum  height  of  room,  8  ft.;  minimum  areas; — bedrooms,  80  sq.  ft.; 
parlor,  120  sq.  ft.;  dining  room,  108  sq.  ft.;  kitchenette,  70  sq.  ft'.;  where 
there  is  no  dining  room,  kitchen  should  be  108  sq.  ft.  A  toilet  and  bath 
for  each  house  or  apartment. 

Albany  Health  Dept.  Regulations. — The  following  are  quoted 
from  the  published  ordinances  of  this  City: 

Each  room  must  have  at  least  one  window  with  area  of  12  sq.  ft.; 
no  room  shall  be  less  than  90  sq.  ft.  in  floor  area,  nor  less  than  7  ft.  wide; 
no  ceiling  in  dwellings  shall  be  lower  than  8  ft.  G  in.;  each  toilet  room 
requires  6  sq.  ft.  of  window  space  opening  to  outside;  each  dwelling  shall 
have  one  sink  with  running  water. 

Ontario  Housing  Committee  Objects. — The  following  is  quoted 
from  the  report  of  this  citizens'  committee,  issued  in  1918: 

There  must  be  some  definite  classifications  taken  as  a  basis  in  formu- 
lating standards.     Careful  investigation  of  living  conditions  has  estab- 


HOUSES  FOR  FAMILIES  301 

lished  certain  requirements  as  essential,  and  others  as  desirable.  There 
will  undoubtedly  be  some  criticism  of  any  attempt  to  classify  essentials, 
and  there  is  bound  to  be  diversity  of  opinion,  but  for  our  purpose  the 

essential  features  may  be  summarized  as  follows: 

1.  Sufficient  land  to  give  each  family  privacy  and  plenty  of  air. 

2.  Water-tight  floors,  walls  and  roof. 

3.  One  or  more  rooms  for  cooking,  eating  and  general  use. 

4.  Bedroom  for  parents'  use. 

5.  Bedroom  for  male  children. 
G.  Bedroom  for  female  children. 

7.  Provisions  for  toilet,  with  sanitary  water  closet  and  sewer  connec- 
tions. 

8.  Running  water  supply  fit  for  drinking. 

9.  Kitchen  sink,  with  waste  connection  to  sewer. 

10.  Uninterrupted  daylight  and  ventilation,  for  windows  in  every 
room. 

Additional  features  which  are  so  desirable  as  to  be  almost  essential 
are: 

1.  Bathtub  and  lavatory,  with  hot  and  cold  water  supply. 

2.  Laundry  tubs,  with  hot  and  cold  water  supply. 

3.  Direct  sunlight  in  all  rooms. 

4.  Second  room  in  addition  to  that  used  for  cooking. 

5.  Clothes  closet. 

G.  Porches  and  verandas. 

Future  additions  of  desirable  features  would  include: 

1.  Electric  lights. 

2.  Separate  dining  room. 

3.  Cellar. 

4.  Furnace  for  heating. 

Some  comment  may  arise  on  the  omission  of  cellar  from  the  list  of 
essentials.  There  are  those  who  claim  that  the  cellar  is  essential  for 
the  storageof  fuel,  canned  fruit,  vegetables,  etc.,  and  that,  since  founda- 
tion walls  are  necessary,  it  costs  no  more  to  provide  a  cellar  than  to 
omit  it.  This  latter  question  will  be  considered  along  with  the  follow- 
ing items  entering  into  the  house  construction.  Regarding  the  storage 
of  fuel,  etc.,  a  careful  survey  of  conditions  will  disclose  the  fact  that 
with  many  families  the  income  will  not  provide  sufficient  surplus  to  per- 
mit the  purchase  of  fuel,  vegetables  or  fruit  in  sufficiently  large  quantities 
to  require  a  cellar  for  storage.  On  the  other  hand,  where  cellars  are 
provided,  they  will  frequently  be  found  to  contain  a  miscellaneous  assort- 
ment of  unsanitary  rubbish,   which   constitutes   a  serious   fire  menace. 

Data  of  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics. — As  indicative  of  the 
kind  of  houses  most  generally  employed  in  industrial  develop- 
ments, the  data  of  the  United  States  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics 


302  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

may  prove  both  instructive  and  interesting.  An  investigation 
covering  two  hundred  and  thirteen  separate  companies,  including 
subsidiary  companies  of  large  corporations,  showed  the  number  of 
men  employed  was  466,991,  of  whom  160,645,  or  34  per  cent., 
were  accommodated  in  houses  controlled  by  the  companies.  Of 
the  53,176  individual  dwellings  considered,  it  appears  that  25,582, 
or  48  per  cent.,  were  single  dwellings,  18,871,  or  36  per  cent., 
double  dwellings,  and  6,014,  or  11  per  cent.,  row  dwellings. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  in  passing  that,  in  the  early  stages 
of  industrial  housing,  as,  for  instance,  in  the  urban  New  England 
mill  tenements,  the  row  type  prevailed,  with  the  double  dwelling 
next  most  common.  The  proportion  of  the  row  type  shows  a 
steady  decline  as  industrial  housing  has  developed,  although  now 
there  is  a  growing  appreciation  of  the  group  dwelling  and  to 
some  extent  of  the  row  type  of  dwellings. 

As  regards  the  number  of  rooms,  it  was  found,  in  the  afore- 
mentioned investigation  that  15,672  houses,  or  30  per  cent., 
had  four  rooms;  9,413,  or  approximately  17  per  cent.,  had  five 
rooms;  and  9,127,  or  approximately  the  same  percentage,  had 
six  rooms.  It  is  apparent  that  the  typical  dwellings  contained 
four,  five  or  six  rooms.  It  does  not  follow  that  these  proportions 
are  for  general  application.  Quite  to  the  contrary;  as  we  know 
industrial  housing  today,  it  presents  a  far  different  problem  than 
the  earlier  examples  indicate;  nevertheless,  these  statistics  re- 
cord the  general  history  of  the  movement  and  are  of  benefit  in 
searching  for  the  next  step. 

As  regards  the  general  construction  of  the  houses,  the  frame 
structure  was  found  to  be  the  most  prevalent ;  brick  used  about 
one-tenth  as  much;  other  materials  less  prevalent  than  brick. 

Recommended  Minimum  Requirements. — From  information 
obtained  by  a  study  of  the  intimate  family  life  in  various  indus- 
trial towns,  after  consideration  of  the  many  practical  elements 
entering  into  the  question,  and  taking  into  consideration  the 
expressed  opinion  of  many  qualified  authorities,  the  author's 
recommendations  as  to  the  minimum  requirements  of  "An  In- 
dustrial Worker's  Home"  are  as  follows: 

1.  Materials. — Permanent  weather  proof  construction  of  exterior 
walls  and  roof. 

2.  Cellar. — Cellar  to  be  provided,  except  in  localities  where  impractical 
or  unnecessary. 

3.  In  case  cellar  is  omitted,  first  floor  to   be  at  least  2  ft.  above 


HOI  rSES  FOR  FA  MILIES  303 

ground  and  supported  on  masonry  piers  or  foundations  carried  below 
frost  line;  and  the  clear  space  enclosed  but  adequately  ventilated. 

4.  Where  cellar  is  provided,  it  shall  have  cement  floor  and  floor  drain. 

5.  Cellar  to  be  properly  lighted  and  ventilated. 

6.  No  living  quarters  to  be  in  basement. 

7.  A  separate  chimney  flue  to  be  run  to  the  cellar  for  future  installa- 
tion of  a  furnace. 

8.  Adequate  provision  must  be  made  for  heating  the  house,  but  fur- 
nace should  not  be  minimum  requirement.  All  heating  fixtures,  whether 
using  gas  or  other  fuel,  must  be  provided  with  vents  to  flues. 

9.  Gas  piping  to  be  provided  for  kitchen  range  and  hot  water  boiler. 

10.  Rooms. — One  room  for  parents  and  infant  child  and  enough  rooms 
for  other  children  for  proper  segregation  of  the  sexes. 

11.  Room  sizes  to  accommodate  minimum  furniture  as  listed.  The 
furniture  to  be  drawn  in  to  scale  on  plans,  so  as  not  to  conflict  with 
windows,  doors  or  hot  air  registers. 

12.  Row  or  group  houses  to  be  not  more  than  two  rooms  deep;  ex- 
cept in  rows  where  combinations  of  units  (as  one  4-room,  two  6-room, 
and  one  4-room)  allow  for  proper  ventilation  to  the  rooms  of  the  deeper 
unit  by  the  nature  of  their  arrangement. 

13.  Duplexes,  Double  Duplexes,  etc. — In  all  such  units,  provision  shall 
be  made  for  obtaining  as  great  a  degree  of  privacy  as  is  enjoyed  at  least 
in  the  row  type  house.  Separate  front  and  rear  entrances,  separate 
cellars  when  cellars  exist,  with  independent  plumbing  lines,  and  heating 
and  lighting  facilities.  It  is  also  recommended  that  means  of  circulation 
between  each  apartment  and  private  cellar  be  effected  without  going 
outside  the  house. 

14.  Closets. — Every  bedroom  must  have  clothes  closet  in  direct  con- 
nection with  it. 

15.  Closet  or  case  of  adequate  size  for  keeping  necessary  china, 
kitchen  utensils,  staple  supplies,  etc.,  must  be  arranged  for  in  kitchen. 

16.  Entrances. — There  must  be  means  of  entrance  other  than  by  the 
front  door. 

17.  Front  porches,  while  desirable,  are  not  a  minimum  requirement. 

18.  In  no  case  should  the  stairs  have  a  rise  of  over  8  inches  and  tread 
of  less  than  9  inches. 

19.  Ventilation. — There  shall  be  a  clear  height  of  not  less  than  G  ft. 
G  in.  from  cellar  floor  to  under  side  of  first  floor  joist.  A  minimum  clear 
story  height  of  8  ft.  shall  generally  obtain  for  first  and  second  stories, 
but  in  cases  of  second  story  rooms  coming  under  sloping  roofs,  it  shall 
be  required  that  flat  portions  of  ceiling  be  over  an  area  of  at  least  40  sq.  ft . 
with  3>2  ft.  minimum  flat  ceiling  width  and  a  clear  height  of  6  ft.  over 
an  area  of  at  least  80  sq.  ft.  with  a  minimum  width  of  7  feet.  (Attic 
rooms  not  subject  to  these  requirements.) 

20.  There  shall  be  in  all  cases  an  air  space,  with  minimum  of  8  in.  from 


:;0|  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

ceiling  to  roof,  with  provision  that  such  space  be  ventilated  directly  to 
outside  air. 

21.  Every  bedroom  to  have  at  least  one  window  opening  directly  to 
outer  air. 

22.  One  window  to  be  sufficient  for  single  rooms,  two  windows  for 
double  rooms.     No  room  to  have  less  than  12  sq.  ft.  of  window  area. 

23.  Bathroom  to  have  one  window  of  not  less  than  6  sq.  ft.  area. 

24.  Water  closet  compartment  to  have  one  window  of  not  less  than 
4>2  sq.  ft.  opening  directly  to  outer  air. 

25.  Skylight  may  be  used  in  lieu  of  window  for  bathroom  or  water 
closet  compartment. 

26.  Window  frames  to  be  of  such  design  that  screens  may  be  used. 

27.  Water  Supply. — Running  water  to  be  required  in  connection  with 
kitchen  plumbing  fixtures.     (Hot  water  connection  is  desirable.) 

28.  A  water  closet  in  separate  compartment,  properly  ventilated, 
must  be  provided  when  bathroom  is  omitted. 

29.  While  bathroom  is  greatly  to  be  desired,  it  is  not  to  be  a  minimum 
requirement;  provided  convenient  and  complete  bath  house  facilities 
are  arranged  for  and  properly  maintained  for  community  use. 

30.  Either  laundry  trays  to  be  provided  in  cellar  or  combination  tray 
and  kitchen  sink  in  kitchen. 

31.  Electricity  to  be  furnished  whenever  possible.  One  switch  to 
be  provided  for  throwing  on  light  on  entering  house  and  one  switch  to 
control  cellar  light  from  top  of  cellar  stairs. 

Grading  of  Houses. — There  is  included  in  the  minimum  re- 
quirements such  provisions  as  will  make  possible  a  house  in  which 
any  person  can  live  comfortably  and  decently.  A  house  built 
under  these  conditions  will  not  contain  many  of  the  features 
which,  while  not  absolutely  necessary,  are  .desired  by  many 
workmen's  families. 

If  the  term  "Industrial  Housing"  applied  only  to  the  lowest 
paid  unskilled  workers,  it  would  be  unnecessary  to  consider  any 
but  essential  features;  however,  a  large  percentage  of  wage 
earners  are  skilled  workmen,  who,  imbued  with  higher  standards 
of  living,  not  only  desire  bid  demand  additional  features  in  the 
house.  They  are  able  and  willing  to  pay  for  such  conveniences. 
It,  therefore,  seems  necessary  to  arrive  at  some  classification  of 
houses  suitable  to  (be  corresponding  grades  of  workmen  which 
exist  in  the  personnel  of  industry. 

Many  persons  have  deemed  two  classifications  all  that  are 
necessary, — one  for  unskilled  workers,  and  one  lor  skilled  workers. 
This  differentiation,  however,  is  considered  to  be  too  abrupt  aim 


liui  SES  FOR  FA  MILIES 


305 


not  furnishing  sufficienl  gradation,  by  men  intimately  acquainted 
with  the  wage  earner  and  his  family  life.  The  native  unskilled 
worker  must  often  be  provided  with  a  better  house  than  the  rank 
and  file  of  unskilled  wage  earners,  and  yet  he  cannol  pay  for 
fchehouses  providedfor  higher  paid  skilled  workers.  I  m  the  other 
hand,  if  he  does  uo1  have  children,  he  probably  is  in  a  Letter 
position  to  afford  these  accommodations  than  the  skilled  worker 
with  a  very  large  family,  who  certainly  will  never  be  satisfied  to 
drop  dow  ii  to  the  grade  of  house  provided  for  unskilled  laborers. 
[i  is  believed,  therefore,  'here  is  considerable  advantage,  if 
not   absolute  necessity,  in  providing  three  grades  of  houses,  as 


Eio.  t:;.      A  view  in  Yorkship  Villon  illustrating  attractive  and  interest! ffeel 

secured  in  intersection  planning  and  house  grouping. 


follows:  First,  A  house  as  inexpensive  as  it  is  possible  to  build 
and  still  meet  the  demands  of  a  home  for  unskilled  labor;  Sec- 
ond, an  intermediate  grade,  to  meet  the  demands  mentioned 
in  the  previous  paragraph;  and  Third,  a  more  expensive  .made, 
for  higher  wage- earning  skilled  laborers,  shop  foremen,  or  the 
higher  paid  men  of  the  clerical  staff. 

For  convenience,  the  three  grades  will  be  referred  to  respectively 
as  ( trade  ( '.  <  trade  1).  and  ( trade  A. 

Grade  C  House  shall  have  the  minimum  requirements,  as 
before  stated. 

Grade  B  House  shall  have  all  the  features  of  a  Grade  C 
bouse,  with  the  following  additional  conveniences: 


306 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


1.  Room  for  dining,  separate  from  kitchen. 

2.  Bathroom  shall  constitute  a  minimum  requirement;  in  which  shall 
be  provided  the  following  fixtures:  Enameled  roll  rim  bathtub,  4  ft. 
6  in.  by  2  ft.  6  in.;  lavatory,  18  in.  by  21  in.;  water  closet,  porcelain  and 
wash  down,  syphonic  action;  enameled  low  down  tank. 

3.  Rift  sawed  yellow  pine  floors  in  first  floor,  plain  sawed  pine  in 
second  floor. 

4.  Provision  for  refrigerator  space  adjacent  to,  but  not  in  kitchen, 
which  may  be  built  in  compartment  on  rear  porch. 

5.  Front  porch,  not  less  than  70  square  feet. 

6.  Lighting  fixtures  in  rooms,  except  bracket  in  bathroom,  to  be  con- 
trolled by  switches  located  conveniently  at  entrance  doors. 

7.  Hot  air  furnaces;  cold  air  returns  to  be  taken  from  inside. 

8.  Laundry  trays  in  basement. 

9.  Mechanical  door  bells. 

10.  Coal  bins. 


i— 


il       '    ^ 


Front  Elevation 


bide  Elevation 


Side  Elevation 


Rear  Elevation 


Fig.  444. — Design  of  a  six-room  detached  dwelling,  showing  the  possibilities 
in  variation  of  exterior  appearance  of  a  single  base  type;  variation  obtained  by 
changing  the  roof  design,  using  different  exterior  materials  and  placing  the 
porch  in  different  positions. 

Grade  A. — House  shall  contain  all  the  features  listed  for  Grade 
C  and  Grade  B  houses,  with  the  following  additional  accommo- 
dations: Such  a  dwelling  is  illustrated  in  Figs.  44A  and  44B. 
1.  The  rooms  to  be  larger  than  the  previous  minimum  requirements. 

Single  bedroom 90  sq.  ft. 

Double  bedroom 130  sq.  ft. 

Dining  room 140  sq.  ft. 

Living  room ISO  sq.  ft. 


HOUSES  FOR  FAMILIES 


307 


2.  A  coat  closet  shall  be  provided,  either  oil  hall  in  first  floor  or  in 
connection  with  living  room. 

3.  Open  fireplace,  with  basket  grate  in  living  room. 

4.  Rift  sawed  yellow  pine  or  oak  floors  in  firs!  and  second  floors. 

5.  Front  porch  with  minimum  of  9(5  square  feet.     Hear  porch. 


SECOND  FLOOR  PLAN 


Porch 

6'-0\ir-0%  FIRST  FLOOR  PLAN 


ATTIC   PLAN 


Fig.  44B. — Floor  plans  of  six-room  detached  dwelling.     (See  Fig.  44 A.) 

6.  Two-way  switches,   for  controlling  one  light   upstairs  and  one 
downstairs. 

7.  Medicine  cabinet  in  bathroom. 

,8.  Combination  gas  and  electric  fixtures  for  lighting  in  kitchen  and 
bathroom. 

A\  illi  the  exception  of  combined  uses  for  same  room,  the  grad- 
ing  classification   of   the   bouses   is    qo1    based   upon    number  of 


308  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

rooms.     Grade  C  house,  for  example,  might  contain  more  bed 
rooms  than  Grade  A  house. 

TYPES  AND  GROUPING  OF  HOUSES  AND  ACCESSORIES 

Types  of  Houses.- — Omitting  for  the  present  the  consideration 
of  materials  used  in  construction,  the  cost  of  a  house  is  primarily 
dependent  upon  the  number  of  rooms  it  contains.  By  applying 
a  sliding  scale  unit  price  per  room,  so  adjusted  as  to  cover  the 
various  grades  of  houses,  we  may  arrive  at  a  reasonable  estimate 
of  the  cost  per  house;  it  being  understood  that  number  of  rooms 
has  no  influence  in  determination  of  grades. 

Effect  on  Cost. — Next  to  material  and  number  of  rooms,  the 
types  of  building  employed — that  is,  whether  single  houses, 
double  houses,  groups,  rows,  etc. — have  an  important  bearing 
on  the  cost.  This  is  true  not  only  of  the  house  itself  but  the 
entire  project,  as  the  land  cost  is  directly  affected  in  consequence 
of  the  type  employed. 

The  words  "grade"  and  "type"  are  used  with  careful  dis- 
tinction— houses  are  "  graded"  according  to  the  facilities 
furnished  and  largely  in  relation  to  the  cost,  whereas  "type" 
refers  to  class  of  building  or  arrangement  of  houses. 

The  following  house  types  will  be  considered,  as  experience 
indicates  that  t^iey  are  the  most  practical  and  satisfactory: 

Type  I.  Single  detached  house. 

Type  II.  Semi-detached  house. 

Type  III.  Row  or  group  house. 

Type  IV.  Single  duplex  house. 

Type  V.  Double  duplex  house. 

Type  VI.  Row  duplex  house. 

Type  VII.  Apartment  house. 

Explanation  of  Types/ — Type  I. — Single  detached  house  is  a 
house  occupied  by  one  family  only.  All  four  sides  of  the  house 
are  exposed,  the  unit  standing  independently  on  its  own  lot, 
with  grounds  bordering  it  sufficiently  large  to  allow  for  light  and 
air.     See  Fig.  44A  for  illustrative  example. 

Type  II. — Semi-detached  house  is  one  in  which  two  separate 
and  distinct  dwellings  are  arranged  side  by  side  under  a  common 
roof.  The  dwellings  are  completely  separated  by  a  party  wall 
and  each  dwelling  has  three  exposed  sides.  Fig.  45  shows  such 
a  house  with  eight  rooms  in  each  unit,  for  the  higher  paid  men. 


Hot  .-/.  !  FOR  FAMILIES 


309 


Type  III. — Row  or  group  house  is  a  unit  of  three  or  more 
(rarely  over  eight)  separate  dwellings,  arranged  side  by  side 
under  a  common  roof  and  separated  by  party  walls.  The  houses 
should  iiol  be  over  two  rooms  deep,  except  when  arranged  in 
such  combinations  that  will  allow  light  and  air  to  the  deeper 
dwellings  by  reason  of  the  design  of  the  group.  These  dwellings 
should  have  rear  access  from  a  -l  reel ,  alley  or  common  couri .  or 
passage  from  thefronl  to  the  rear  or  cellar:  See  Figs.  47  and  48. 

Type  IV.— Single  duplex  /muse  is  one  providing  two  separate 
dwellings  one  above  the  oilier.  Each  musl  have  separate  en- 
trances, fronl   and  rear.     Each  dwelling  to  have  its  own  private 


Fig.  45. — Semi-detached    eight-room  dwellings,     Yorkship     Village     project, 
Emergency  Fleet  Corporation. 

cellar,  reached  without  going  outside  the  building.  Each 
dwelling  has  four  exposed  side-. 

Type  V. — Double  duplex  house,  as  the  name  implies,  is  formed 
by  arranging  t  wo  single  duplex  units  side  by  side,  so  as  to  form  a 
unit  under  one  roof,  in  which  four  families  are  housed.  The 
general  provisions  called  for  under  the  single  duplex  apply  with 

equal  force  in  tin'-;  case  Each  dwelling  lias  three  exposed  sides. 
I'm.  46  shows  such  a  hous 

Type  17. — Row  duplex  is  obtained  by  arranging  three 
or  more  single  duplexes  side  by  side.  It  must  be  only  two  rooms 
deep  except  ;u  end  hoi 

Type  VII.  Apartrm  nt  house  can  be  arranged  for  any  number 
of  apartments,  composed  by  varying  numbers  of  rooms.     This 


310 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


type  differs  from  the  other  multiple  family  houses  in  that  the 
apartments  are  reached  through  a  common  entrance  and  stair- 
way. By  its  very  nature  this  style  necessitates  joint  use  of 
cellars,  laundry  facilities,  etc.,  by  all  the  tenants;  whereas  the 
duplex  dwellings  enjoy  privacy  in  this  respect.  The  heating  must 
be  from  a  central  plant.  This  fact,  as  well  as  the  others  enum- 
erated, make  it  necessary  to  provide  janitor  service,  which  com- 
plicates the  problem  from  the  standpoint  of  the  investor. 

Many  arguments  may  be  advanced  for  and  against  the  employ- 
ment of  the  various  types.  The  detached  house  meets  with  gen- 
eral approval  from  native  American  workmen,  because  it  typifies 


Fig.  46. — View  of  four-family  duplex  dwelling. 

the  traditional  tendencies  of  selective  American  housing,  which 
have  come  down  to  us  from  pioneer  days.  However,  memory  of 
the  early  homes  of  our  forefathers,  with  their  privacy  and  homey 
atmosphere  suggesting  independence  and  sole  proprietorship, 
should  not  be  allowed  to  befog  the  conditions  as  they  exist  today. 
The  motives  which  impelled  the  building  of  these  early  homes,  as 
well  as  the  natural  conditions  surrounding  them,  are  just  as 
different  from  present  day  building  as  the  manner  of  living  was 
different  from  that  of  the  present. 

The  detached  house  offers  the  possibility  of  cross  ventilation 
of  rooms  and  greater  amount  of  sunlight,  but  when  the  houses 


HOUSES  FOR  FAMILIES  311 

arc  placed  close  to  one  another,  because  of  high  land  values,  it  is  a 
question  whether  these  features,  instead  of  being  advantages, 
are  not  the  opposite.  The  narrow  side  yards,  devoid  of  the 
possibility  of  air  and  sunlight,  offer  little  that  is  to  be  desired, 
.either  in  making  for  a  dignified  setting  for  the  house,  or  as  a 
means  of  obtaining  the  advantage  of  exposure  for  the  various 
rooms.  These  side  yards  often  degenerate  into  damp,  dark 
alleyways,  in  which  it  is  impossible  to  cultivate  plant  life.  If 
such  is  the  case,  how  can  we  hope  for  good  results  from  them  as 
light  and  air  shafts? 

As  to  the  question  of  privacy  in  this  type,  as  contrasted  with 
the  multiple  unit  or  groups,  providing  sound-proof  party  walls 
are  used  in  the  latter,  there  is  probably  less  privacy,  since  in  the 
group  it  is  at  least  impossible  to  look  directly  from  one  house  into 
another.  The  detached  home  is  a  more  costly  investment,  not 
only  as  to  first  cost,  but  also  as  regards  maintenance.  A  greater 
number  of  exposed  sides  is  subject  to  deterioration;  it  is  more 
expensive  to  paint,  and  to  heat.  Gas  bills  for  the  end  houses 
of  rows  are  frequently  one  and  one-half  times  those  of  the 
interior  houses.  The  housewife  prefers  the  multiple  type,  as 
there  are  less  windows  and  curtains  to  keep  clean  and  less  expense 
in  furnishing  window  trimmings. 

From  the  standpoint  of  exterior  architectural  appearance, 
it  must  be  added,  the  small  detached  house  offers  one  of  the  most 
difficult  problems  the  designer  has  to  meet.  No  matter  what 
the  area  of  the  house  may  be,  the  height  remains  fairly  constant 
for  all  types.  The  result,  in  the  case  of  a  single  house  of  small 
area,  is  that,  having  to  meet  the  requirement  for  height,  it  is 
extremely  difficult  to  arrive  at  a  proportion  that  will  not  look 
stilted.  The  architect,  in  his  desire  to  arrive  at  better  propor- 
tions, strives  to  pull  down  the  apparent,  height  by  dropping  the 
eaves  to  a  degree  that  necessitates  sloping  ceilings,  and  knee 
walls.  This,  however,  often  results  in  serious  inconvenience  in 
the  livableness  of  the  bedrooms.  It  has  been  noted  that  in  some 
single  house  developments  such  designing  necessitates  placing  the 
bed  a  foot  to  18  in.  from  the  wall,  in  order  to  obtain 
sufficient  height  to  accommodate  the  headboard.  This,  in 
admittedly  small  rooms  to  start  with,  is  a  serious  inconvenience. 

In  the  multiple  unit,  the  architect  finds  a  much  simpler  prob- 
lem in  trying  to  obtain  architectural  effects.  Not  only  is  it 
possible   to  obtain   better  general   proportions,   but    the   many 


312 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


possibilities  in  grouping  of  various  sized  units,  together  with 
the  variation  permitted  in  arranging  porches  and  composing  of 
roof  lines,  give  a  latitude  in  designing  which  makes  possible 
compositions    abundant    in    picturesqueness    and    charm. 

A  consideration  which  must  not  be  overlooked  in  a  study  of 
the  types  is  the  nature  of  the  investment,  whether  it  be  for  rental 
or  sale,  viz. :  The  objection  to  buying  or  selling  individual 
dwellings  in  a  multiple  unit,  group  or  row,  is  not  to  be  overcome 
by  edict,  but  the  fact  that  in  certain  localities  such  transactions 
are  common  practice  leads  one  to  believe  that,  should  the  present 
high  cost  of  building  prevail  for  an  extended  period,  the  prejudice 


Fig.  47. — Typical  row  dwellings,  Yorkship  Village. 

against  owning  such  a  home  may  be  overcome  by  force  of  circum- 
stance. In  view  of  this  fact,  it  is  suggested  that,  should  multiple 
units  be  constructed  with  the  idea  of  selling  the  individual 
dwellings,  the  designer  should  strive  to  make  the  houses  as  inde- 
pendent as  possible.  In  this  connection,  the  unit  should  differ 
from  the  renting  project,  in  that  plumbing  lines  for  each  house 
should  be  run  separately;  porches  should  not  overlap  the  adja- 
cent dwelling;  separate  entrance  pathways  must  be  provided, 
and,  even  in  units  under  a  common  sloping  roof,  party  walls 
should  be  inn  through  the  roof.  This  lasl  provision,  although  it 
may  sound  a  serious  disadvantage,   will   be  found  on   careful 


HOUSES  FOR  FAMILIES 


3  Hi 


study  to  offer  greal  possibilities  in  the  way  of  an  interesting 
decorative  treatment.  As  an  example  illustrating  this  point, 
see  Fiji.  48. 


•     " 


I 


- 


PERSPECTIVE    SKETCH 


Fio.    18      Multiple  Family  dwellings  illustrating  possibilities  of  treatmenl  where 
division  walls  are  carried  through  and  above  the  roof. 

The  duplex  and  apartment  types  are  essentially  those  built 
on  I  he  policy  of  rental,  bu1  they  meel  souk;  demands  better  than 
any  <>i  her  type.  It  will  be  manifest  t  hal  a  dwelling  ofthree  rooms 
and  bath,  in  any  of  the  single  family  units,  is  practically  an 


314  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

impossibility.  Yet  accommodations  of  this  kind  are  in  great 
demand  by  young  married  people  without  children,  who  in  start- 
ing housekeeping  cannot  afford  to  furnish  larger  quarters,  for 
which,  indeed,  they  have  no  absolute  need.  If  such  people  be 
obliged  to  take  a  larger  house,  then  they  must  rent  a  room  or  two 
to  lodgers,  which  creates  unnatural  and  often  unpleasant  condi- 
tions in  the  home  life  and  leads  to  dissatisfaction. 

Finally,  to  sum  up  in  a  few  terse  sentences  recommendations 
based  upon  the  foregoing  arguments,  it  is  suggested: 

First. — That  the  detached  house  be  employed  for  Grade  A 
dwellings,  in  either  a  sales  or  renting  project. 

Second. — That  the  semi-detached  unit  be  employed  principally 
for  a  Grade  B  dwelling,  but  under  some  circumstances,  especially 
when  land  values  are  high,  for  Grade  A  dwellings.  This  type 
should  be  used  for  the  most  part  in  a  renting  project,  but,  when 
designed  with  care  to  offset  prejudices  relative  to  joint  ownership, 
it  may  be  built  for  sale. 

Third. — The  row  or  group  type  should  be  particularly  identified 
as  a  Grade  C  dwelling,  although  it  will  be  found  entirely  satis- 
factory for  the  Grade  B,  when  it  incorporates  the  necessary 
features  to  identify  it  in  that  class.  However,  it  should  rarely, 
if  ever,  be  used  for  A-houses,  not  because  it  is  an  unsatisfactory 
house  for  any  class  of  people  to  live  in,  but  merely  because  pre- 
judice is  still  so  strong  against  the  idea  of  living  in  a  row.  Event- 
ually this  feeling,  we  are  sure,  will  be  overcome  and  the  row  type 
house,  properly  designed,  will  come  into  its  own.  This  is  quite 
easily  appreciated  when  one  stops  to  think  that  many  of  the  older 
city  residences  of  the  well-to-do  in  some  cities  are  virtually 
row  type  dwellings. 

The  duplex  and  apartment  types  may  readily  fit  any  of  the 
grade  classifications  and,  of  course,  apply  only  to  renting  devel- 
opments. 

Grouping  of  Types. — The  composition  of  house  units  to  form 
a  block  should  be  guided  by  the  following  fundamental  considera- 
tions: 

1.  The  houses  adjacent  to  one  another,  if  they  are  detached 
units,  should  be  of  types  which  will  permit  of  as  great  privacy 
as  possible.  This  is  accomplished  by  arranging  that  the  windows 
of  one  do  not  come  directly  opposite  those  of  another  and,  if 
possible,  so  that  the  stair  side  faces  the  living  quarters  of  the 
opposite  house. 


NOISES  FOR  FAMILIES 


315 


2.  House  plans  should  Ik;  arranged  so  as  to  have  as  little  con- 
II id  as  possible  in  location  of  porches  and  also  to  guard  against 
the  rear  service  of  one  house  being  in  full  view  of  the  front  porch 
of  the  next  unit. 

3.  Monotony  should  be  avoided  by  the  employment  of  types, 
and  by  exterior  variations  of  the  same  plans,  to  assure  a  pleasing 
contrast,  especially  in  the  composition  of  roof  lines.  This  may 
also  be  done  by  reversing  the  plan  of  the  same  type  occasionally. 
Variation  by  merely  painting  in  different  colors  is  of  doubtful 
value,  because  by  thus  calling  attention  to  the  elements  of  the 
design,  the  similarity  is,  if  anything,  more  quickly  noted,  and 


(■■■I 

"■itafcte^ 

■ 

Hi^fl^^BH 

Wm 

Fig.  49. — Croup    of    four-family    apartment    houses    arranged    about    a    court; 

Buckman  Village. 

because  usually  some  one  color  scheme  is  productive  of  the  best 
results,  and  the  houses  treated  otherwise  suffer  in  consequence. 

4.  There  should  Ik;  a  feeling  of  unity  in  the  general  composi- 
tion, and  in  the  arrangement  of  the  individual  blocks.  By  this 
it  is  not  meant  that  the  houses  of  a  given  block  must  all  be  painted 
exactly  alike  or  be  exactly  similar  in  the  exterior  details,  but 
they  should  look  as  though  they  all  belonged  to  the  same  general 
group.  The  placing  of  a  one  story  house  next  a  two  and  a  half 
story  house,  or  flic  placing  of  a  flat-roofed  row  type  next  to  one 
with  sloping  roof  should  be  condemned.  These,  although  ex- 
treme  cases,  serve  to  illustrate  by  exaggeration.  Fig  49  is 
illustrative  of  good  grouping. 


316 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


Where  to  draw  the  line  between  monotony  and  restlessness, 
caused  by  striving  too  hard  for  variation,  is  a  delicate  task ;  labored 
variety  produces  an  unpleasant  effect.  Similarity  of  shape,  and 
contour  must  not  be  confounded  with  sameness  of  architectural 
style ;  and  nothing  is  more  pleasing  than  a  development  in  which 
a  general  uniformity  of  exterior  material  and  architectural  style 
has  been  observed,  and  in  which  variation  is  obtained  by  ingen- 
uity in  the  composition  of  the  individual  house,  its  relation  to 
its  neighbors  and  the  delicate  contrast  of  minor  architectural 
details. 


Fig.  50. — A  row  garage  and  service  open  space,  Sun  Hill  project  of  (he  Emer- 
gency Fleet  Corpora  (ion;  an  alternative  to  constructing  the  individual  rear-  lot 
garage. 


The  Garage. — The  automobile,  whether  it  be  called  a  luxury 
or  a  convenience,  is  becoming  more  and  more  a  part  of  the  gen- 
eral family  equipment.  Low  priced  cars  have  been  developed 
to  a  point  where  it  is  just  as  possible  for  the  working  man  to  have 
one,  as  far  as  first  cost  is  concerned,  as  to  own  a  piano.  The 
fact  is  that  many  do  own  automobiles.  Some  means  of  housing 
them  is  as  necessary  as  shelter  for  other  belongings. 

Single  Garage. — Only  in  the  case  of  the  more  expensive 
grade  of  house  should  the  single  garage  be  provided;  First,  be- 
cause very  often  these  houses  are  of  the  detached  type,  which 
allows  sufficient  room  for  the  garage  without  undue  crowding  of 


HOUSES  FOR  FAMILIES  Ml  7 

the  yard  space;  Second,  because  Lhe  man  living  in  such  a  house 
can  better  afford  to  pay  the  increased  rental  on  the  property;  and 
third,  because  ii  is  fairly  safe  to  say  thai  any  tenant,  occupying 
the  house  will  possess  an  automobile. 

Row  Garage. — Garage  accommodations  for  Grade  B  and 
for  some  Grade  C  houses  should  be  effected  by  building  a  battery 
of  garages  at  a  selected  place,  convenient  to  the  houses.  The 
battery  type  is  economical  in  construction  and  in  use  of  land,  and 
both  result   in  appreciably  lower  rental. 

In  this  class  the  possibility  of  every  man  owning  a  machine  is 
much  more  remote  than  in  the  Grade  A  class,  and  to  place  a 
garage  on  every  lot  would  result  in  some  lying  idle  and  the  rear 
yards  would  be  occupied  with  these  buildings,  which  would  yield 
no  return.  Further  than  this,  the  strictest  control  would  not 
overcome  the  tendency  to  use  these  idle  garages  for  the  general 
accumulation  of  refuse.  The  battery  garage  is  susceptible  to  the 
same  line  of  reasoning  as  applied  to  the  multiple  dwelling  and  is 
consequently  the  logical  type  to  use  in  such  cases.  Such  a  row 
is  shown  in  Fig.  50. 

Garage  Construction. — Garages  should  be  large  enough  to  ac- 
commodate an  average  sized  car,  with  space  for  a  work-bench 
and  shelves  for  supplies  and  tools.  The  side  walls  need  not  have 
any  windows,  as  enough  light  will  be  afforded  by  providing 
glass  in  the  double  entrance  doors  and  a  double  window  in  the 
rear  wall.  The  latter  should  be  placed  high  enough  to  allow 
the  workbench  to  be  placed  under  it. 

Regardless  of  the  material  used  for  the  walls,  the  foundations 
should  be  of  masonry  and  extend  below  frost  line.  A  satisfac- 
tory floor  is  constructed  of  concrete,  and  should  pitch  toward 
the  entrance.  Running  water  in  the  garage  and  electric  lighting 
are  desirable. 

In  some  localities,  ordinances  require  the  garage  to  be  of  fire- 
proof construction;  concrete,  brick  and  hollow  tile  walls  ;uc  suit- 
able for  this  purpose.  When  cost  is  not  prohibitive,  the  single 
garage  should  refleel  the  character  of  the  house  it  serves.  When 
constructed  in  batteries,  garages  should  be  in  harmony  with  the 
multiple  dwellings  of  the  neighborhood. 

BUILDING  TECHNIQUE 

A  discussion  of  the  building  technique  must  have  as  its  key- 
note lowest  possible  cost  consistent  with  permanency  of  ,•„],- 
struct  ion. 


318  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

General. — Standardization  of  materials  and  millwork  and 
quantity  production  loom  large  as  two  important  aids  in  forcing 
down  the  cost  of  building.  In  all  avenues  of  business  it  is  cheaper 
to  buy  wholesale  than  retail,  and  the  construction  of  houses  is  no 
exception  to  this  rule.  The  term  "quantity  production",  as 
used  here,  is  not  intended  to  mean  greatness  as  relating  to  num- 
ber of  houses,  so  much  as  is  meant  large  scale  production  and 
manufacture  of  materials  of  construction  to  be  employed  in  the 
building  of  the  houses.  To  buy  advantageously  in  the  greatest 
possible  quantities  necessitates  buying  the  least  possible  number 
of  different  things,  which  leads  directly  to  standardization  of 
materials  and  units  of  mill  work. 

This  theory  has  long  been  expounded  in  an  endeavor  to  bring 
down  building  cost  for  the  individual  home  builder  and  has 
resulted  in  the  commercial  specialization  by  what  is  known  as  the 
ready-cut  or  knock-down  houses.  The  fact  that  such  standard- 
ized complete  houses  are  already  developed  and  offer  a  wide  and 
varied  choice  has  led  to  the  suggestion  of  their  use  in  solving  the 
Industrial  Housing  problem.  Reasonable  as  this  may  sound,  it 
must  be  evident  that  if  care  is  exerted  in  designing  for  a  situation, 
so  as  to  use  in  all  cases  not  only  stock  sizes  of  lumber  but  also 
stock  mouldings,  frames  and  various  items  of  millwork,  i.e., 
stock  products  everywhere,  the  same  economical  results  will  be 
obtained,  and  the  additional  benefit  of  being  able  to  secure  the 
best  solution  for  each  problem,  rather  than  to  choose  from  a 
catalogue  the  nearest  article,  which  may  be  far  from  satisfactory. 
Site  conditions  frequently  require  much  ingenuity  to  make  the 
dwellings  fit  the  property.  When  such  ready-cut  houses  serve  a 
useful  purpose  in  a  hurry-up  job,  individuality,  not  to  speak  of 
greater  architectural  merit,  will  result,  if  individual  units  are 
designed  with  a  proper  conception  of  the  relationship  of  one 
house  to  another. 

Building  Materials. — Naturally  the  relative  cost  has  a  strong 
influence  upon  making  a  selection  of  various  materials,  and  in 
many  cases  proves  to  be  the  determining  factor.  Many  other 
considerations,  however,  must  be  carefully  noted,  even  though 
they  may  lead  to  greater  expense,  for,  after  all,  we  are  not  look- 
ing for  the  cheapest  house  in  point  of  first  cost  only,  but  the 
cheapest  housing  which  can  be  devised  and  still  satisfactorily 
meet  the  conditions  of  the  individual  problem. 

Local  Environment. — The  diverse  nature  of  communities  and 
the  variation  in  climatic  conditions  of  different  localities  speak 


HOUSES  FOR  FAMILIES  319 

for  different  types  of  buildings.  Domestic  architecture  has 
resolved  itself  into  a  comparatively  few  set  styles,  which  demand 
the  use  of  certain  specified  materials,  in  order  to  retain  the  char- 
acteristics necessary  to  the  styles. 

Each  locality  shows  a  marked  preference  for  some  one  or  more 
of  these  styles,  and,  upon  a  careful  analysis,  it  will  be  found  the 
adoption  of  one  by  a  locality  has  not  been  occasioned  so  much  by 
a  mere  preference  for  the  general  appearance  obtained  as  by  a 
process  of  reasoning  in  the  attempt  to  discern  the  demand  of  the 
environment.  Availability  of  building  material  is  one  good  rea- 
son for  the  adoption  of  a  style,  as  the  cost  of  a  material  close  at 
hand  will  generally  be  less  than  cost  plus  transportation  for  some 
other  distant  material. 

The  nature  and  location  of  the  enterprise  will  exert  an  influence. 
For  instance,  it  seems  unwise  to  build  frame  or  stucco  houses  in 
a  development  located  in  the  heart  of  a  great  mill  district,  as  for 
instance  the  steel  mills  of  Pittsburgh.  The  deterioration  in  ap- 
pearance  would  involve  an  abnormally  high  upkeep  cost  if  the 
houses  were  to  be  properly  maintained.  Climatic  conditions 
also  narrow  the  choice.  Developments  in  localities  offering 
long,  uninterrupted  seasons  of  warm  weather  and  brilliant  sun- 
shine must  certainly  be  treated  differently  from  those  in  cold 
weather  climates,  subjected  to  long  periods  of  gray  days  and 
extreme  cold. 

There  is  another  reason  for  adopting  a  style  for  a  development, 
which,  although  not  substantiated  by  practical  considerations, 
nevertheless  is  important;  it  is  the  architectural  tradition  of  the 
region.  To  fully  appreciate  what  this  means  we  have  only  to 
imagine  the  ill  favor  it  would  occasion  were  we  to  foist  upon  a 
New  England  village,  rich  in  its  store  of  old  colonial  houses  or 
examples  of  cottages,  a  development  executed  in  the  style  of 
rows  so  commonly  encountered  in  the  Middle  West,  or  made  up  of 
an  assemblage  of  California  bungalows. 

The  degree  of  the  building  density  contemplated  for  a  develop- 
ment ,  wit  h  the  conl  rolling  low  or  high  land  values,  will  be  directly 
reflected  in  the  style  of  architecture  employed.  For  instance, 
the  bungalow,  so  popular  in  southwestern  United  States  would  be 
an  ill-chosen  type  for  a  congested  manufacturing  district  of  the 
Centra]  States.  In  the  one  case  one  can  afford  to  spread  out, 
while  in  the  other,  in  order  to  house  as  many  people  as  possible, 
it  is  necessary  to  utilize  all  of  the  land. 


320  INDUSTRIAL  IfuCSlNG 

Low  Maintenance  versus  Personal  Preference.— In  apparent 
contradiction  to  the  ideas  advances  for  selection  of  architectural 
styles  and  the  employment  of  materials,  there  is  found  in  every 
locality  and  section  of  the  country  examples  of  architecture  which 
tend  to  disprove  all  that  has  been  said.  Such  examples  rather 
add  to  the  force  of  the  arguments,  as  they  are  for  the  most  part 
isolated  instances  which  have  been  dictated  by  personal  preference. 
It  is,  therefore,  principally  in  the  development  which  is  to  be 
on  a  renting  basis  that  one  may  feel  more  free  to  suggest  stand- 
ardizing types  and  methods. 

Personal  preference  of  the  prospective  individual  home  owner 
may  cause  unwise  selection  of  materials  and  style,  which  may 
lead  to  unsatisfactory  results  and  high  maintenance  costs;  the 
magnitude  of  which  only  becomes  glaring  in  large  holdings.  The 
individual  may  have  such  a  strong  preference  for  a  frame  house 
that  he  will  be  willing  to  withstand  the  expense  of  painting  every 
few  years,  and  of  replacing  portions  of  the  house  which  may  have 
deteriorated.  But,  if  this  be  multiplied  by  five  hundred  or  more 
houses,  the  cost  is  both  amazing  and  sufficiently  important  to 
make  provisions  to  minimize  maintenance  costs,  after  all,  the 
most  important  consideration  in  both  the  selection  of  materials 
and  styles  of  architectural  treatment. 

The  Concrete  House.- — Concrete  houses  are  much  in  favor  in 
certain  localities  and  with  some  interests.  The  pronounced  ad- 
vantages are  stability,  durability,  fire  and  vermin-proof  quali- 
ties, freedom  from  repair  and  general  upkeep.  They  have  been 
objected  to  in  the  past  because  of  excessive  cost,  dampness, 
rigidity  of  floor  surface  and  lack  of  variety  in  treatment.  Many 
of  these  difficulties  have  been  eliminated  in  recent  construction 
and  concrete  housing  is  growing  in  favor  where  large  develop- 
ments permit  the  use  of  machine  methods. 

Concrete  building,  either  by  use  of  blocks,  repetition  of  forms, 
or  by  the  unit  slab  method,  permits  the  utilization  of  large  scale 
production  methods.  It  avoids  many  difficulties  with  labor  by 
freedom  of  necessity  of  coordinating  and  assembling  several 
trades  on  the  same  job  and  by  permitting  the  use  of  common  labor 
to  a  large  extent.  The  expense  of  construction  may,  therefore, 
be  well  within  that  of  other  materials,  and  when  annual  costs 
are  considered,  the  use  of  concrete  is  likely  to  compare  favorably. 

It  is  particularly  adaptable  to  group,  row  and  apartment 
construction,  to  which  its  sound-  and  fireproof  qualities  are  well 


HOUSES  FOR  FAMILIES  321 

adapted.  It  is  a  mistake  to  treal  concrete  surfaces  in  strained 
imitation  of  some  other  material,  arid  acceptable  taste  and  good 
art  are  best  developed  by  giving  good  expression  to  the  material 
used.  Harmony,  variety  and  architectural  excellence  can  be 
obtained  and  the  use  of  concrete  in  (lie  future  may  well  be  con- 
sidered in  industrial  housing. 

Details  of  Construction. — To  discuss  here  the  mass  of  details 
which  make  up  a  satisfactory  house  is  beyond  the  intent  of  this 
chapter,  but  it  would  seem  necessary  to  warn  against  some  of  the 
common  mistakes  observed  in  much  of  the  present  housing. 

For  example,  frequently,  to  save  material,  roofs  have  been 
given  insufficient  pitch,  with  the  result  that  leaky  roofs  are  a 
common  complaint,  especially  when  poor  covering  has  been  used. 
The  roof  should  have  a  pitch  of  not  less  than  5  in.  in  12  in.  for 
porches  and  not  less  than  6  in.  in  12  in.  for  regular  house  roofs. 
Care  should  be  exercised,  in  laying  the  asphalt  shingle  roof,  to 
see  that  the  shingles  are  securely  nailed;  especially  when  the 
four-in-one  strip  shingle  is  used.  Careless  workmen  an;  apt  to 
use  only  two  nails.  The  result  is  that  the  roofing  material  blows 
up,  especially  on  low  pitches,  and  leaks  occur. 

Simplicity  of  roof  construction,  with  as  few  dormers  as  pos- 
sible, is  recommended;  both  because  of  the  expense  involved  and 
the  danger  of  leaks  where  vertical  sides  come  in  contact  with  the 
roof,  requiring  flashing.  Flat  roofs  and  decks  should  be  avoided 
as  much  as  possible,  and  when  used  should  be  covered  with  a 
good  grade  of  tin,  preferably  a,  copper  bearing  tin  or  where 
practicable  a  guaranteed  composition  tar  and  gravel  roof.  The 
use  of  tin  is  also  recommended  for  flashing  occurring  on  vertical 
wail-,  but  the  valleys  might  better  be  formed  by  using  rubberoid 
or  some;  such  material.  This  will  eliminate  the  possibility  of 
deteriorat  ion    t  hrough  rust  ing  out . 

It  is  inadvisable  to  run  stucco  walls  down  to  grade  level  as 
frost  cracks  and  spalling  of  the  material  are  bound  to  result. 
Basement  walls,  when  constructed  of  concrete,  should  contain  10 
per  cent .  hydrated  lime  to  act  as  an  integral  waterproofing.  Even 
when  tl  is  is  done,  and  especially  when  other  kinds  of  basement 
walls  are  employed,  they  should  be  well  designed  and  constructed 
to  insure  tightness.  If,  upon  inspection,  much  dampness  is 
evident,  there  should  be  an  application  of  a  membrane  system  of 
waterproofing  applied  on  the  exterior  of  the  wall,  and  where  the 
wall  abuts  a   made,   in   which  there  is  evidence  of  a   run  of  8UD- 


322  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

surface  drainage,  a  French  drain  should  be  provided  to  relieve 
water  pressure  against  the  wall. 

Great  care  should  be  exercised  in  the  laying  up  of  the  flue  lin- 
ings in  chimneys,  in  order  to  see  that  the  joints  rest  in  an  even 
full  bed  of  mortar  and  that  the  void  between  the  brickwork  and 
the  tile  lining  is  flushed  solid.  The  importance  of  this  provision 
cannot  be  too  strongly  recommended,  as  faulty  flues  cause  endless 
trouble  and  are  extremely  hard  to  correct. 

In  brick  houses  it  is  well  to  see  that  the  sills  of  windows  are 
well  bedded  in  a  neat  cement  grout  to  prevent  rain  driving  under 
the  sills.  The  staff  mould  on  all  windows  should  be  carefully 
designed,  not  only  to  insure  a  proper  amount  of  space  for  apply- 
ing screens,  but  also  to  give  enough  cover  at  the  joints  to  take 
care  of  irregularities  in  brickwork  due  to  short  chipping  and  poor 
jointing. 

Wooden  construction  for  porches  should  be  eliminated  as  much 
as  possible  and  foundations  for  porches  should  be  of  masonry. 

Simplifying  the  exterior  millwork  is  recommended,  so  as  to 
use  as  little  wood  as  possible;  as,  not  only  is  the  first  cost  reduced, 
but  also  maintenance  costs,  since  there  is  less  chance  of  deteriora- 
tion and  less  woodwork  to  paint.  Likewise,  in  the  interior,  as 
little  wood  as  possible  should  be  used.  Three  and  one-half  inch 
plain  trim  is,  if  anything,  better  than  larger  or  more  elaborate 
finish  and  reduces  the  cost  of  millwork  and  upkeep. 

Finally,  a  word  of  warning  should  be  sounded  against  buying 
too  cheaply,  in  the  hope  of  reducing  costs.  Very  cheap  material 
will  be  found  to  effect  no  economy,  because  the  costs  of  working 
it  up  and  the  wastage  are  so  great. 

Cost  of  Materials  in  Construction. — The  item  of  cost  is  the 
question  of  greatest  interest  to  the  investor  and  owner,  and,  in 
consequence,  one  is  continually  confronted  by  the  query — 
"Which  is  cheapest,  the  brick  house,  the  frame  house,  or  the 
stucco  house,  and  what  is  the  difference?" 

To  avoid  complicating  the  matter  at  the  outset,  we  will  con- 
sider brick,  stucco  and  frame  as  general  classifications,  although 
each  of  the  three  is  subject  to  wide  variation  and  utilizes  material 
of  the  other  class.  For  instance,  what  is  commonly  known  as  the 
brick  house  may  have  solid  9  in.  brick  walls,  or  have  4  in.  of  brick 
veneered  on  regular  studded  inner  walls,  or  have  4  in.  of  brick 
backed  up  with  hollow  tile;  likewise,  the  other  constructions  are 
subject  to  many  modifications,  which  affect  the  cost. 


HOUSES  FOR.  FAMILIES 


323 


Generally  speaking,  the  brick  house  is  more  costly  than  stucco, 
and  slucco  in  turn  is  more  costly  than  frame,  but  as  to  the  exact 
difference  in  the  cost  there  is  a  great  divergence  of  opinion.  This 
is  not  due  so  much  to  ignorance  on  the  part  of  those  who  should 
be  informed  on  the  subject,  but  rather  to  the  fact  that  the  cost 
of  materials  is  different  in  different  localities.  The  cost  of  a 
material  at  a  given  site  is  dependent  upon  cost  at  the  source  of 
supply,  plus  transportation.  It  is  thus  a  difficult  matter  to  offer 
any  comparison  of  costs  of  materials,  which  can  be  of  value  for 
general  application.  Furthermore,  the  present  condition  of  the 
markets  as  to  prices  make  it  hazardous  to  give  a  price  today  which 
will  be  of  value  tomorrow. 

Even  though  these  limiting  conditions  must  be  admitted,  the 
desire  to  have  some  detailed  information,  to  be  used  in  arriving 
at  conclusions  on  the  question  of  the  comparative  cost  of  different 
methods  of  construction  employing  various  building  materials, 
has  led  to  the  formulation  of  the  following  tabulated  data.  The 
general  method  has  been  to  estimate  accurately  the  quantity  of 
materials  entering  into  each  method  of  construction,  and  to 
apply  current  market  prices  f.o.b.  the  source  of  the  material  in 
question.  Labor  cost  has  been  estimated  and  present  union 
wages  applied  for  each  kind  of  labor  involved  in  the  various 
operations.  As  far  as  change  in  wages  is  concerned,  it  will  usu- 
ally be  found  that  a  change  in  one  trade  is  followed  by  a  general 
modification  in  the  wage  scale,  and  the  relation  is  thus  main- 


Table  38. — Comparative  Estimated  Costs  per  Square  Foot  of  Walls 
of  Various   Materials 


Place 

Mai  i  rials 

Dimensions 

<  !i  el  per 
sq.  ft. 

in  cents 

Basement  and  foun- 

(loncrete  

9  '    hick 

30 

dations 

Hollow  tile 

8"  X  12"  X  12" 

29 

Superstructure 

Brick  backed  with  tile 

4"— 4"  X  12"  X  12" 

49 

Brick  with  furring. 

9"  thick 

58 

Brick  Veneer 

4" — sheathing 

40 

Stucco  on  tile1  

5"  X  8"  X  12" 

11 

Slucco  on  metal  lath 

Studs  and  Bheathing 

34 

Slucco  on  wood  lath  . 

Studs  and  sheathing 

:;•_"■, 

Siding  on  sheathing. 

6"  lap 

30 

(')"  lap 

23 

Shingles  on  sheathing 

in 

324 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


tained  fairly  constant.  Finally,  the  estimate  has  been  resolved 
into  a  common  unit,  namely,  the  cost  of  1  sq.  ft.  of  super- 
ficial wall  area.  These  data  are  for  the  spring  of  1920  in  the 
Pittsburgh  district  and  cannot  be  used  for  other  parts  of  the  coun- 
try without  recalculation  from  the  original  data.  The  comparison 
is  presented  in  the  preceding  table. 

Tabulation  of  House  Costs. — In  addition  to  the  information 
given  in  the  above  table,  data  on  the  cost  of  houses  in  various 
sections  of  the  United  States  will  serve  as  a  good  indication, 
not  only  of  the  relative  costs  of  various  types  of  dwellings,  em- 
ploying different  materials,  but  also  will  prove  interesting,  as  an 
indication  of  the  general  advance  in  cost  of  building  in  the  last 
few  years.  A  list  of  houses  with  their  approximate  costs  ap- 
pears in  the  following  table: 


Table   39. — Information   Concerning   Cost  op  Houses  in  Different 

Localities 


Locality 

Type 

Number  of 
rooms 

( '(instruction 

Approximate 

est  imated 

cost 

Date 

Bridgeport,  Conn. 

Semi-detached 

4  and   bath 

Common  brick 

$3203  to  3471 

1918-1919 

Bridgeport,  Conn. 

Row 

3  and  bath 

Common  brick 

3007 

1918-1919 

Bridgeport,  Conn. 

Row 

4  and  bath 

Common  brick 

379S 

1918-1919 

New     L  o  n  d  o  n, 

Detached 

5  and  bath 

Frame 

3900  to  3954 

1918-1919 

Conn. 

New     London, 

Semi-detached 

5  and  hat h 

Frame 

4011 

1918-1919 

Conn. 

Waterbury,  Conn. 

Detached 

(',  and  bath 

Stucco 

171U 

1918-1919 

Waterbury,  Conn. 

Semi-detached 

ti  and  bath 

Stucco 

4755 

1918-1919 

Rock  Island,  111... 

Detached 

4  and  bath 

Frame 

3910 

191S-1919 

Rock  Island,  111... 

Detached 

5  and  bath 

Frame 

4  134 

1918-1919 

Hath,  Maine 

Detached 

6  and  bath 

Concrete 

4378  to  4819 

191S-1919 

Bath,  Maine 

Detached 

5  and  bath 

Concrete 

3907 

1918-1919 

Bath,  Maine 

Semi-detached 

3  and  bath 

Concrete 

2859 

1918-  191!) 

Aberdeen,  Md. .  .  . 

Detached 

(i  and  bath 

Frame 

4595 

1918-1919 

Aberdeen,  Md. .  .  . 

Detached 

6  and  bath 

Frame 

4475 

191S-1919 

Aberdeen,  Md. .  .  . 

Row 

4  and  5  and 
bath 

Frame 

3575 

1918-1919 

Indian  Head,  Md. 

Detached 

(i  and  bath 

Frame 

3276  to  3330 

191S-1919 

Lowell,   Mass.    .  .  . 

Detached 

5  and  bath 

Frame 

2361 

1917 

Lowell,  Mass.    .  .  . 

Semi-detached 

4  and  bath 

!•  came 

1932 

1917 

Worcester.   Mass.  . 

Detached 

6  and  bal  h 

Frame 

3188-3791 

1915-1916 

New     Brunswick, 

Detached 

6  and  bath 

Hollowtile, 

1549 

1918-  1919 

X.  J. 

stucco 

• 

New     Brunswick, 

Semi-detached 

5  a nd  6  a  nd 

1  [ollowtile, 

4009  to  4173 

1918-1919 

N.  J. 

bath 

i  tucco 

lie,  X .  .1 

1  and  ba1  h 

Frame 

L600 

1918 

Fto  ■•■ 

li  and  bath 

Frame 

2200 

1918 

Watertow  a,  N.  ^  . 

1  (etached 

5  and  6  and 

bath 

Frame 

3230  I-  I  153 

1918   1919 

HOUSES  FOR  FAMILIES 
Table  39.     Continued 


325 


Locality 

Type 

i  i.-t ion 

\  ppi  oximate 
nated 

1  late 

u  atei  town,  N.  Y. 

Semi-.]. 

.".  and  bat  li 

$3945 

L918    1919 

Akron,  1  ihio 

I  »i  bached 

5  and 

Brick-stucco- 

and  hit 

1(117 

hath 

tile 

2 to  3600 

Xili  s.'Ohio 

Semi-detached 

.">  and  bat  h 

Frame  bunga- 
low 
Frame 

3808 

1918    1919 

I  ><  tached 

."i  and  6  and 

,  4590 

1918    L919 

hath 

Erie,   Pa 

Deta  ched 

.">  and  6  and 

Brick,  tile  and 
stucco 

1766  i 

1918-1919 

Brie,  Pa 

Semi-di  1 

:<  and  6  and 
hath 

Brick,  tile  and 
si  uceo 

■  101  s  to  5680 

1918-1919 

Erie,  Pa 

Row 

r,  and  6  and 

hath 

Brick,  tile  and 

•  1  lie,  -ii 

4869  to  5179 

L918    L919 

Pittsburgh      Dis- 

I >etached 

5  and  bath 

<  lommon  brick 

1300 

1918-1919 

trict,  la 

4"     back     up 
tile 

Pittsburgh      Dis- 

I  letached 

li  and  bath 

Common  brick 

4700 

1918-1919 

4"     back     up 
tile 

Pittsburgh      Dis- 

1 ict  ached 

7  and  hath 

Common  brick 

5000 

L918    1919 

trict,  Pa 

4"     back     up 
tile 

Pittsburgh      Dis- 

Semi-detached 

.">  and  bath 

Prick-tile 

4100 

1918-1919 

trict.  Pa 

Pittsburgh      1 1 

Semi-detached 

C and  hat h 

Brick-tile 

1 51 10 

1918-1919 

trict,  Pa 

Pittsburgh 

Row 

1   and   hath 

Brick-tile 

3100 

1918-1919 

trict,  Pa 

Pittsburgh  district 

Row 

hath 

Brick-tile 

3800 

1918-1919 

Pittsburgh  district 

Row 

1   and  6  and 

bath 

BricK-tile 

3800-4.,O() 

1918-1919 

Nanticoke,  Pa 

Semi-detached 

6 

Poured  i 

11  GO 

1912 

Williamsport,  Pa 

Row 

1 

Stucco    on    Ex- 
pander .Metal 

1172 

1916 

New  porl .  R.  I    .  .  . 

Semi-detached 

.">  and  li  and 

bath 

Frame 

l.,st 

191S-1919 

\i«  port,  R.  I .    .  . 

I  letached 

bath 

Frame 

4470 

1918-1919 

Craddock,  \  a 

1  li  tached 

5  and  bath 

Frame 

3222  3447 

1918   1919 

( Iraddock,  Va .... 

I  letached 

6  and   bat  h 

Frame 

3654   3974 

1918   1919 

( Iraddock,  Va. . . . 

1 ).  tached 

7  and  bath 

Frame 

1 1 1 :. 

1918 

Semi-detai  hed 

1.    5,    6,    and 

bath 

Frame 

2460 

1918 

<  Iraddock,  \  a 

Row 

6  and  bat  h 

Frame 

3675 

1918   1919 

St.  Albans,  \v.  Va. 

Semi-detached 

6  anil 
hath 

Frame, 
heal 

1500-1600 

L916 

ston.W.  Va 

Semi-detached 

-I   and   5  and 

■  '11  tile 

1918   1919 

Charleston,^    \  a 

Detached 

bath 

Stucco  on  tile 

3900    1608 

L918 

Charl 

Di  tached 

8  and   bath 

Stucco  on  tile 

1918 

326 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


DETERMINATION  OF  ACCOMMODATIONS  REQUIRED 

The  following  development  of  the  method  of  arriving  at  the 
required  number  and  grades  of  houses  and  quarters  for  families 
and  unmarried  workers  is  illustrative  of  the  procedure  to  be 
followed  in  applying  the  suggestions  made  in  this  and  the  fol- 
lowing chapter.  The  data  as  to  the  number  and  classification 
of  the  employees  and  the  wages  paid,  while  corresponding  to 
actual  conditions  now  prevalent,  are  not  susceptible  of  general 
application,  owing  to  the  variations  present  in  any  particular 
case,  but  the  presentation  of  the  outline  of  the  method  may  be 
helpful  in  making  similar  surveys  of  housing  requirements. 

A  town  site  is  assumed  for  an  industrial  plant,  in  which  it  is 
estimated  5000  people  will  be  directly  employed.  The  determi- 
nation of  number  of  houses  and  other  accommodations  required 
is  based  on  the  number  on  payroll.  The  determination  of  the 
grades  and  types  of  houses  is  based  on  the  wages  of  employees. 

Forecasted  Payroll. — A  forecast  of  the  immediate  payroll, 
divided  into  skilled  and  unskilled  labor  and  showing  the  number 
of  married  men,  single  men,  women  and  minors  of  both  native 
and  foreign  workers,  is  shown  on  the  following  table. 


Table  40. 

— Forecasted  Immediate  Payroll 

Skilled  labor 

Unskilled  labor 

Class  of 

Men 

Wom- 
en 

Mi- 
nors 

Men 

Wom- 
en 

Mi- 
nors 

Total 
work- 

Mar- 
ried 

Single 

Mar- 
ried 

Single 

Native 

800    200 
200    300 

50 
0 

0 
0 



200 
50 

800 
1,800 

2,600 

150 
0 

300 

150 

450 

2,500 

Foreign 

2,500 

Total 

1,000 

500 

50 

250 

150 

5,000 

The  following  table  shows  the  forecasted  payroll  subdivided 
according  to  wage  scale. 


HOUSES  FOB  FA  Ml  I.IKS  327 

Table  41. — Forecasted  Proposed  Wage  Scale 


duaification 

$4 

$4  t.> 
$5 

-7  to  18  to    S'l  to   Over 
$9    1  $10      »10 

.Married    skilled    native 

workmen 

50 

!.-,() 

250 

150 

100 

100 

Married  unskilled  native 

workmen 

100 

75 

25 

Married    .skilled    foreign 

workmen 

50 

85 

30 

20 

10 

5 

Married  unskilled  foreign 

40 

10 

Total  married  workmen. . 

0 

140 

85 

125 

235 

_'S() 

170 

no 

105 

Unmarried  skilled  native 

workmen 

GOO 

1,200 
1,800 

150 

50 

600 

800 

50 
150 

30 

20 

Unmarried  unskilled  na- 
tive workmen 

Unmarried  skilled  foreign 
workmen 

Unmarried  unskilled  for- 
eign workmen 

50 

30 

20 

20 

Total    unmarried    work- 
men  

0 

210 

80 

100 

GO 

30 

20 

Skilled  native  women 
workers 

Unskilled  native  women 
workers 

250 
140 

1 25 
50 
10 

185 

40 
25 

10 

Unskilled  native  minors.  . 

Unskilled  foreign  minors . 

Tojtal  women  A:  minors.  .  . 

300 

65 

in 

(i 

0 

0 

it 

0 

Grand  total 

300 

•_'.  1 25 

950 

345 

315 

380 

230 

no 

1  25 

Number  and  Grades  of  Houses  Required. — Grade  C  houses 
will  be  provided  for  married  workmen  receiving  less  than  $7.00 
per  day.  The  Grade  1!  Houses  will  be  provided  for  married 
workmen  receiving  from  ST. 00  bo  $9.00  per  day.  The  Grade  A 
houses  will  be  provided  for  married  workmen  receiving  $9.00 
and  mote. 

Table  II  -hows  thai  there  are  585  married  men  receiving  less 
than  $7.00  per  day;  150  married  workmen  receiving  from  $7.00 
to  $9.00  per  day;  215  married  workmen  receiving  $9.00  or  more 


328 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


per  day.     Therefore,  there  will  be  required  585  Grade  C;  450 
Grade  B;  and  215  Grade  A  Houses. 

Quarters   Required  for   Single   Workmen. — The  number  of 
rooms  required  for  single  men  is  based  on  the  number  of  single 


DETACHED     HOUSE 

Scale  ?u.u,7  ?        ?        fftet 


riUST     FLOOR.  PLAN 


SECOND    FLOOB.  PLAN 


Fig.  51. — Small  boarding  house  of  the  type  built  at  the  Wyandotte,  Michigan, 
project  of  the  Emergency  Fleet  Corporation;  effective  separation  between  the 
family  and  the  boarders  is  secured. 

men  on  the  forecasted  payroll.  The  grades  of  rooms  to  be 
provided  are  based  on  the  wages  received  by  the  single  men  and 
also  whether  they  are  native  or  foreign  workmen. 

On  this  basis  six  grades  of  rooms  are  to  be  provided  as  follows: 


HOUSES  FOk  FAMILIES 


329 


Grade  U.for  high  wage  native  single  workmen. 
Grade  V  for  medium  wage  native  single  workmen. 
Grade  W  for  low  wage  native  single  workmen. 
Grade  X  for  high  wage  foreign  single  workmen. 
Grade  Y  for  medium  wage  foreign  single  workmen. 
Grade  Z  for  low  wage  foreign  single  workmen. 

In  estimating  the  number  of  rooms  required  for  single  men,  an 
allowance,  must  be  made  for  the  single  men  living  in  family 
houses  either  as  members  of  the  family  or  as  lodgers.  It  is 
assumed  that  a  larger  number  of  workers  per  house  will  be  ac- 
commodated in  Grade  C  houses,  than  in  Grade  B  or  Grade  A 
houses.  Also,  that  houses  occupied  by  foreign  families  will 
have  a  larger  number  of  workers  per  house  than  those  occupied 
by  native  families  Fig.  51  illustrates  how  this  is  accom- 
plished with  suitable  privacy.  The  following  assumptions  are 
made  in  estimating  the  number  of  workers  per  house,  other  than 
head  of  family,  women  workers  and  minors. 

Table  42. — Estimated  Number  of  Single  Workers  Living  in   Family 
Souses  not  Including  Women  Workers  and  Minors 


Grade 

Occupant 

Number  of 

houses 

Assumed  distribu- 
tion of  single 
workers  in 
Louses 

Resultant   number 

of  single 

workers    in 

family 

houses 

A 

Native  family 

200 
400 
400 
15 
50 
185 

1250 

1  in  10 
1  in  4 
1  in  2 
1  in  5 
1  in  2 
1  in  1 

20 

B 

C 
.1 
B 
C 

Native  family 

Native  family 

Foreign  family 

Foreign  family 

Foreign  family 

Total 

100 

200 

3 

25 

185 

533 

If  in  addition  to  the  above  total  of  533,  the  150 unskilled  native 
women  workers  and  the  450  minors  are  assumed  to  live  with 
families,  the  total  so  accounted  becomes  1133  people,  in  addition 
to  1250  heads  of  the  families.  Thai  is.  there  are  2383  workers 
living  in  the  1250  houses,  or  1.9  workers  per  house.  The  U.  S. 
Housing  Corporation  in  planning  their  projects  assumed  1.7 
workers  per  house. 

There  are  840  native  single  workmen  receiving  less  than  S7.00 
per  day.  One  of  every  two  of  the  100  <  trade  <  '  houses,  occupied 
by  native  families,  will  accommodate  one  additional  single  man, 


330  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

either  as  a  member  of  the  family  or  as  a  lodger,  so  that  there  will 
remain  640  native  single  men  to  be  provided  with  Grade  W 
quarters.  Assuming  that  2  men  will  occupy  one  room  there  will 
be  required  320  Grade  W  rooms. 

There  are  110  native  single  workmen  receiving  between  $7.00 
and  $9.00  per  day.  One  of  every  four  of  the  400  Grade  B  houses 
for  native  families  will  house  a  single  man,  so  that  there  will 
remain  10  single  native  workmen  to  be  provided  with  Grade  V 
quarters.  Assuming  that  one  man  will  occupy  a  room,  there  will 
be  required  10  Grade  V  rooms. 

There  are  50  native  single  workmen  receiving  $9.00  or  more  per 
day.  One  of  every  10  of  the  200  Grade  A  houses  for  native 
families  will  house  an  additional  single  man,  so  that  there  will 
remain  30  single  native  workmen  to  be  provided  with  Grade  U 
quarters.  Assuming  that  one  man  will  occupy  one  room  there 
will  be  required  30  Grade  U  rooms. 

There  are  2050  foreign  single  workmen  receiving  less  than 
$7.00  per  day.  Each  of  the  185  Grade  C  Houses  for  foreign 
families  will  house  an  additional  foreign  single  workman,  so 
that  there  will  remain  1865  foreign  single  workmen  to  be  provided 
with  Grade  Z  quarters.  Assuming  that  two  men  will  occupy 
one  room,  there  will  be  required  932  Grade  Z  Rooms. 

There  are  50  foreign  single  workmen  receiving  between  $7.00 
and  $9.00  per  day.  One  of  every  two  of  the  50  Grade  B  houses 
and  one  out  of  every  5  of  the  15  Grade  A  houses  for  foreign 
families  will  house  an  additional  foreign  single  workman,  so 
that  there  will  remain  22  foreign  single  workmen  to  be  provided 
with  Grade  Y  quarters.  Assuming  that  2  workmen  will  occupy 
one  room,  there  will  be  required  1 1  Grade  Y  rooms. 

There  are  no  foreign  single  workmen  receiving  $9.00  or  more 
per  day,  so  that  no  Grade  X  quarters  need  be  provided. 

Quarters  for  Women  and  Minors. — It  is  assumed  that  50  of  the 
200  women  employees  must  be  provided  with  single  quarters. 
Allowing  one  woman  for  each  room  there  will  be  required  50 
special  rooms  for  women  employees. 

It  is  assumed  that  the  300  native  minors  and  the  150  foreign 
minors  will  live  with  families  so  that  no  single  quarters  will  be 
required  for  them. 

Summary  of  Houses  and  Rooms  Required. — Below  is  shown 
tabulated  number  and  grades  of  houses  and  rooms  required: 


HOUSES  FOR  FAMILIES 


331 


Grade  A    Eousi 
( trade  B   Eouses  for 
( rrade  ( '    1  [oust 
( rrade   I    Souses  for 
Grade  /.'    Eous< 
Grade  C    Eouses  for 
( rrade  V  Rooms  for 
( rrade  l'   Elooms  for 
( rrade  II'  Elooms  for 
Grade  X  Rooms  for 
Grade  Y  Elooms  for 
Grade  Z   Rooms  for 
Special  Rooms  for  \Y 
Rooms  for  Minors 


Native  Families  =  200 

Native  Families  =  400 

Native  Families  =  400 

Foreign  Families  =    15 

Foreign  Families  =     50 

Foreign  Families  =  185 

Native  Single  Workmen  =  30 
Native  Single  Workmen  =  10 
Native  Single  Workmen  =  320 
Foreign  Single  Workmen  =  None 
Foreign  Single  Workmen  =  11 
Foreign  Single  Workmen  =  932 
omen  Employees  =    50 

=  None 


CHAPTER  XI 
BUILDINGS  OTHER  THAN  HOUSES 

Quarters  for  Single  Men — Quarters  for  Single  Women — 

Stores     and     Apartments — Special      Service 

Buildings — Buildings  for  Social  Needs 

Introduction. — Buildings  to  supply  the  physical  wants  and 
the  social  needs  of  a  community  are  secondary  in  importance 
only  to  the  dwelling  houses  themselves.  Their  necessity  is 
more  urgent  in  the  rural  than  in  the  urban  development,  due  to 
the  fact  that  the  latter  is  nearby  to  established  facilities  of  this 
kind.  A  decision  on  what  buildings  (hereafter  referred  to  as 
Special  Service  Buildings)  are  necessary  in  a  given  development, 
must  be  made  before  the  general  plan  can  be  put  into  effect. 
The  location  of  such  buildings  must  be  a  part  of  the  scheme  of  the 
town  plan;  but  the  design  of  the  separate  units  in  the  specified 
locations  and  the  relation  to  the  general  housing  project  must  be 
the  work  of  the  architect.  It  is  this  phase  of  the  problem  which 
will  be  discussed  in  this  chapter. 

Character  of  Special  Buildings. — Under  "Special  Buildings" 
the  following  lists  of  buildings  will  be  discussed: 

Buildings  which  supply  Buildings  which  supply  social 

physical  needs  are: — ■  and  ethical  needs  are: — 

Quarters  for  single  men  School  houses 

Quarters  for  single  women  Assembly  hall 

Stores  Churches 

Laundry  Community  house 

Bakery  Club  houses 

Refrigerating  Plant  Gymnasia 

Hospital  Theatres 

The  problem  of  drawing  up  programs  for  all  such  buildings, 
in  terms  of  the  service  they  should  render,  confronts  one  at  the 
outset.  As  to  the  buildings  designed  to  cater  to  the  physical 
needs,  one  can  intelligently  forecast  what  the  limiting  conditions 

332 


BUILDINGS  OT III :i!  THAN  HOUSES  333 

of  the  program  should  be,  as  there  is  tangible  information  to 
guide.  Concerning  the  buildings  designed  to  supply  the  social 
needs,  as  such  are  products  of  the  personal  element,  which  in 
a  new  development  are  unknown  factors,  a  wise  decision  is  more 
difficult. 

The  method  of  management  of  the  development,  and  the 
nature  of  the  in  vestment — whether  the  houses  are  to  be  rented  or 
sold — must  also  be  considered  in  making  provision  for  these 
buildings.  If  the  building  company  is  to  retain  ownership  of 
houses  and  institutions  and  manage  the  community,  then  it 
may  more  readily  predetermine  the  character  of  these  special 
buildings.  This  method  of  management,  however,  has  been 
unsuccessful  in  many  cases,  as  people  and  particularly  Ameri- 
cans, resent  being  directed  without  participating  in  the  govern- 
ment; and  they  also  dislike  having  their  amusements  prescribed 
for  them. 

The  result  often  has  been  that  the  social  features,  offered  at 
considerable  expense,  have  been  practically  rejected  by  the  people. 
In  view  of  this  fact,  would  it  not  be  better  merely  to  allot  suit- 
able space  for  such  features  and  forget  about  the  design  or  con- 
struction of  them  until  such  time  as  plans  can  be  intelligently 
formulated?  Then  such  will  not  only  reflect  the  desires  of  the 
people  to  be  served,  but  also  allow  their  participation  in  the 
development  of  the  plans.  Approaching  the  matter  in  this  way, 
one  may  overcome  the  backwardness  the  workman  feels  in  ac- 
cepting a  service  from  others  which  smacks  of  paternalism,  or 
possibly  of  disguised  charity. 

The  character,  size  and  general  plan  of  the  buildings  will  be 
determined  by  the  service  they  offer  and  the  number  and  class 
of  people  to  receive  such  service.  The  next  step  must  be  a  de- 
cision regarding  the  kind  of  construction  and  the  building  ma- 
terials to  be  employed. 

Building  Materials. — The  fact  that  the  buildings  are  for  the 
most  part  larger  than  the  house  units  tends  to  intensify  lack  of 
harmony  between  them  and  the  dwellings.  For  this  reason 
care  must  be  exercised,  not  only  in  the  selection  of  materials, 
but  also  in  the  expression  of  architectural  treatment,  in  order 
to  insure  no  discordant  notes,  or  feeling  of  intruded  commercial- 
ism in  the  general  scheme.  As  to  appearance,  it  should,  by  em- 
ploying somewhat  the  same  materials  and  architectural  style, 
conform  to  the  general  character  of  the  development. 


334  IN  DUST  III  iiL  HOUSING 

In  regard  to  the  question  of  economy,  in  building  and  mainte- 
nance costs,  that  which  is  true  of  the  general  housing  program 
will  also  obtain  for  special  buildings. 

The  motives  which  impel  the  provision  of  special  buildings, 
together  with  the  requirements  to  insure  satisfactory  results, 
will  now  be  discussed. 

QUARTERS  FOR  SINGLE  MEN 

The  number  of  single  men  employed  in  industrial  plants  varies 
with  the  character  and  location  of  the  industry.  To  provide 
for  the  housing  of  these  men  it  will  be  necessary  to  consider  the 
total  number  and  the  class  of  men  to  be  housed,  in  order  to  erect 
satisfactory  quarters  for  each. 

Formerly,  the  only  provision  for  taking  care  of  single  men  was 
by  means  of  isolated  camps,  as  no  other  accommodations  were 
available.  In  settled  districts,  the  single  men,  with  the  possible 
exception  of  the  lower  grades  of  common  labor,  who  were  housed 
in  crowded  bunk  quarters,  were  left  to  find  lodging  places  where- 
ever  they  could  do  so.  This  has  led  to  the  result  that  the  great 
majority  were  taken  in  as  lodgers  by  private  families.  The 
lack  of  proper  accommodations  and  congenial  surroundings 
provokes  restlessness  and  dissatisfaction  among  the  single  workers, 
and  results  in  a  high  percentage  of  labor  turnover. 

This  condition  has  prompted  many  industrial  concerns  to  study 
the  housing  of  the  single  worker  with  as  great  care  as  that  of  his 
married  brother.  As  a  consequence  of  such  study,  it  is  generally 
believed  that  there  should  be  three  distinct  grades  of  quarters 
for  single  men,  which  may  be  considered  as  analagous  to  the 
grades  suggested  for  married  men  and  will  be  referred  to  as  Grades 
D,  E  and  F. 

Boarding  Houses. — The  most  generally  accepted  type  of 
building  for  the  low  and  middle  classes  of  labor,  Grades  F  and  E, 
respectively,  is  the  "Boarding  House".  A  literal  view  of  the 
term  "Boarding  House"  might  lead  to  the  impression  that  these 
houses  were  to  serve  merely  as  eating  places,  which  is  not  the 
case,  as  they  offer  the  facilities  for  both  dining  and  lodging.  The 
lower  priced  the  grade  of  labor  to  be  housed,  the  larger  the  unit 
for  this  purpose;  the  reason  being  one  of  cost.  Since  less  rental 
can  be  expected  from  the  low  paid  workman  than  from  those 
receiving  higher  wages,  the  building  costs  must  likewise  be  held 
down;  group  life  accomplishes  this.     The  same  arguments  as  to 


BUILDINGS  OTHER  THAN  HOUSES  335 

costs,  which  obtained  in  the  case  of  single  and  multiple  dwelling 
houses,  will  apply  here  with  equal  force;  the  greater  the  number 
of  rooms  under  a  single  roof,  the  less  the  cost  per  room,  for  the 
reason  that  not  only  are  building  costs  reduced,  but  also  a  saving 
in  land  and  operation  is  effected.  The  size  of  the  units  is  a 
question  for  each  development  to  decide  for  itself,  in  considera- 
tion of  the  number  of  men  of  different  classes  to  be  housed  and 
the  policy  of  the  company  as  regards  the  operation  of  the  units. 

Two  methods  are  suggested  regarding  types  of  boarding  houses 
and  the  policy  of  the  company  concerning  the  operation  of  such 
units. 

First, — small  units,  designed  in  such  a  way  as  to  provide 
accommodations  for  a  family  who  shall  run  the  house,  and  in 
addition  a  separate  portion  of  the  building  for  boarders. 

Second, — large  units  which  shall  be  managed  directly  by  the 
company. 

Small  Boarding  Houses. — This  type  should  not  house  more 
boarders  than  the  housewife  can  conveniently  take  care  of  with- 
out interference  with  her  own  domestic  duties.  The  house  must 
be  so  designed  that  the  seclusion  of  that  portion  of  the  dwelling 
occupied  by  the  family  shall  be  complete;  this  will  necessitate  a 
separate  entrance  for  the  boarders  and  means  of  circulation  from 
their  living  quarters  to  the  dining  room  without  passage  into  or 
through  the  family  apartment.  Although  double  rooms  for 
boarders  are  more  economical  than  single  rooms,  the  latter  are 
far  more  desired  by  the  tenants  and  generally  more  satisfactory. 
Each  boarder's  room  should  have  a  clothes  closet.  An  interest- 
ing design  of  a  small  boarding  house  is  showm  in  Fig.  51. 

No  separate  recreation  room  need  be  provided,  as  the  general 
dining  room  may  readily  serve  for  this  purpose.  In  such  case, 
however,  a  separate  dining  room  for  the  family  should  be  pro- 
vided, or,  in  the  cheaper  grade,  the  kitchen  may  be  made  large 
enough  to  allow  its  use  for  dining  purposes. 

Ample  toilet  room  facilities  should  be  provided  for  the  use  of 
boarders,  arranged  so  as  to  be  separate  from  similar  accommoda- 
tions for  the  family  use. 

Heating,  lighting  and  ventilation  should  be  the  same  as  before 
suggested  for  single  house  types  of  the  corresponding  grade. 

Larger  Boarding  Houses. — The  operation  of  the  larger  boarding 
house  should  be  directed,  if  not  controlled,  by  the  company. 
This  is  best  accomplished  by  putting  the  building  in  charge  of  a 


336 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


custodian,  who  should  reside  in  the  building  and  be  solely  respon- 
sible for  its  satisfactory  operation  in  every  particular.  Such  an 
unit  is  shown  in  Fig.  52. 

The  office  of  the  custodian  should  be  located  in  such  a  position, 
on  the  ground  floor,  as  to  enable  him  not  only  to  watch  the  main 
entrances,  but  also  the  entrance  to  the  dining  room.  If  the 
building  is  large  enough  to  warrant  such  an  arrangement,  the 
bedrooms  should  be  in  wings,  separated  by  a  central  structure 
in  which  the  dining  hall  may  be  located  on  the  first  floor  and  a 
large  recreation  hall  directly  above  it  on  the  second  floor.  When 
such  a  plan  is  used,  there  should  be  a  corridor  providing  circula- 


Fig.  52. — A  boarding  house  for  the  accommodation  of  forty  laborers. 

tion  from  one  wing  to  another  so  that  the  dining  hall  need  not  be 
used  for  this  purpose. 

There  should  be  stairways  in  each  wing,  preferably  placed  so 
as  to  start  from  the  circulating  corridor  and  to  land  at  a  point 
centrally  located  in  the  second  floor.  This  will  necessitate  the 
least  amount  of  travel  to  reach  the  greatest  number  of  second 
floor  rooms  and  main  recreation  hall,  and  will  cause  the  mini- 
mum circulation  past  bedrooms.  Dark  portions  of  the  build- 
ings should  be  used  for  storage  space  and  toilet  units,  provided 
adequate  window  area  can  be  planned  in  the  latter  case.  Pro- 
vision should  be  made  for  porches,  or  at  least  some  space  where 


BUILDINGS  OT If ER  THAN  HOUSES  337 

the  men  can  sit  out-of-doors.  The  kitchen  service  to  the  dining 
room  should  be  as  direct  as  possible,  preferably  through  a  pant  ry; 
it  should,  in  addition,  be  so  placed  as  to  be  readily  accessible 
from  the  service  yard. 

Requirements  of  Different  Grades. — The  different  grades  of 
buildings  will  be  indicated  by  the  extent  of  facilities  furnished  and, 
therefore,  by  the  expense  of  construction;  the  lesser  equipped 
buildings  being  for  lower  waged  workmen  and  the  more  expen- 
sive for  the  higher  priced  ones. 

Grade  F  Buildings. — A  cellar  under  the  entire  building  is  not 
essential,  but  that  which  is  provided  should  be  equivalent  to 
the  following: 

The  minimum  height  should  be  7  ft.,  well  lighted  and  cross 
ventilated.     The  floor  should  be  of  cement,  sloped  to  drains. 

In  portions  where  the  cellar  is  omitted,  the  building  should  be 
set  up  on  masonry  walls  or  piers  which  must  be  carried  below 
frost  line.  The  clear  air  space  in  such  portions  should  be  2  ft. 
in  height,  enclosed  and  ventilated,  with  provision  for  ground 
drainage. 

Buildings  under  four  stories  in  height  need  not  be  fireproof 
in  general  construction,  but  when  over  three  stories  they  should 
be  fireproof  throughout.  In  buildings  of  three  stories  or  less, 
having  an  area  exceeding  3,000  sq.  ft.,  there  should  be  fire  walls 
constructed  of  brick,  terra  cotta,  stone  or  concrete  placed  in 
such  a  manner  that  no  portion  with  an  area  of  more  than  3,000 
sq.  ft.,  should  exist  unless  enclosed  by  such  fire  walls.  Further- 
more, in  buildings  of  this  type,  when  so  arranged  that  sleeping 
quarters  occur  in  wings,  radiating  from  a  common  central  struc- 
ture, each  such  unit,  regardless  of  whether  it  exceeds  the  area 
before  called  for,  should  be  separated  by  fire  walls.  Stand  pipes 
with  hose  reels  should  be  provided,  so  that  any  portion  of  the 
building  can  be  reached  with  75  ft.  of  hose. 

In  two  story  buildings,  no  other  means  of  egress  than  the  regu- 
lar stairs  and  stair  halls,  as  hereinafter  called  for,  need  be  pro- 
vided, but  in  structures  of  three  stories  or  more,  adequate  means 
of  passage  to  the  street  or  yard  should  be  provided,  either  by 
additional  stairs  enclosed  in  fireproof  walls,  fire  tower  or  stair- 
way fire  escape.  All  such  additional  means  of  egress  should  be 
remote  from  the  main  stairs,  and  located  so  that  no  room  shall 
be  more  than  40  ft.  distant.  When  exterior  metal  fire  escapes 
are  used,  they  should  be  reached  through  fireproof  self-closing 

22 


338  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

doors,  made  to  swing  out,  and  landings  on  such  should  be  so  ar- 
ranged that  descent  will  not  require  persons  to  pass  in  front  of 
windows. 

All  stairs  and  stair  halls  should  be  not  less  than  3  ft.  wide 
in  the  clear  and  when  enclosed  in  fire  walls,  as  above  called  for, 
doors  should  swing  out  toward  the  stair  hall,  so  as  not  to  obstruct 
free  passage. 

Dumb  waiters  and  elevators  should  have  their  own  separate 
enclosure  vv  ith  fireproof  doors. 

Unless  connected  with  a  central  heating  plant,  provision  should 
be  made  for  independent  low  pressure  steam  heating.  Radia- 
tors in  bedrooms  should  be  placed  under  windows. 

One  water  closet  for  every  12  men,  one  urinal  per  16  men,  one 
lavatory  per  8  men  and  one  shower  per  10  men  are  necessary. 
Bathtubs  are  not  absolutely  necessary.  All  toilet  rooms  should 
have  the  floor  surfaces  of  an  impervious  material  other  than  con- 
crete. A  toilet  should  be  provided  in  the  basement  for  use  of 
such  workers  and  attendants  as  occupy  that  part  of  the  building. 

Each  floor  should  have  a  separate  toilet  room,  with  sufficient 
fixtures  to  conform  to  the  listed  requirements.  In  cases  where 
isolated  or  partially  isolated  wings  occur,  additional  toilet  rooms 
should  be  provided,  so  that  the  lodgers  may  reach  a  toilet  without 
going  outside  the  wing  in  which  they  are  housed.  The  placing 
of  lavatories  and  showers  in  a  room  separate  from  toilets  and 
urinals,  while  not  a  minimum  requirement,  will  be  found  a  more 
satisfactory  arrangement;  and,  so  arranged,  that  the  rooms  are 
communicating.  All  toilet  and  bathrooms  should  have  windows 
opening  directly  to  the  outer  air.  Separate  service  closets, 
with  slop  sinks,  should  be  provided  one  to  each  floor,  or  more 
where  isolated  conditions  as  stated  above  occur. 

Adequate  provision  should  be  made  for  housing  the  permanent 
servants  of  the  building  and  also  the  custodian  or  superintend- 
ent. These  quarters,  together  with  their  toilet  accommodations, 
should  be  entirely  isolated  from  that  portion  of  the  building  oc- 
cupied by  lodgers.  The  general  dining  hall,  recreation  room, 
office  for  the  custodian,  kitchen,  pantry  and  servants'  dining 
room  should  be  provided.  The  size  of  all  such  rooms  will  be 
dependent  upon  the  number  of  men  to  be  accommodated.  All 
public  rooms,  such  as  dining  hall,  recreation  rooms  and  corridors 
should  have  heights  of  9  ft.  to  12  ft,;  bed  rooms  should  have  a 
minimum  height  of  8  feet. 


BUILDINGS  OTHER  THAN  HOUSES  339 

The  number  of  rooms  is  not  subject  to  detennination  here, 
but  bed  rooms  should  be  designed  as  single  rooms.  These  should 
have  a  minimum  area  of  70  sq.  ft.  and  a  minimum  width  of  7  ft. 
They  should  be  designed  so  as  to  allow  for  the  minimum  furniture 
called  for  in  the  following  list: 

Single  bed,  3  ft.  3  in.  X  6  ft.  6  in. 

Combination  wardrobe  and  dresser,  2  ft.  0  in.  X  3  ft.  6  in. 

Writing  table,     1  ft.  6  in.  X  2  ft.  6  in. 

One  chair. 

The  furniture  should  be  indicated  carefully  to  scale  on  the 
plans.  Built-in  clothes  closets  for  the  bedrooms  need  not  be 
a  minimum  requirement. 

Each  single  bedroom  should  have  at  least  one  window,  with 
a  free  area  of  12  square  feet.  Doors  to  bedrooms  should,  when 
possible,  be  placed  opposite  one  another,  and  should  have  tran- 
soms, or  louvers. 

Buildings  should  be  wired  for  electricity.  Corridor  lights,  and 
illumination  in  the  dining  hall  and  recreation  room  should  be 
controlled  from  a  panel  board,  located  in  or  close  to  the  custodian's 
office.  Bracket  lights  should  be  provided  in  bedrooms,  in  such 
location  as  to  furnish  light  at  the  dresser,  these  lights  to  be  con- 
trolled at  the  fixtures.  Other  lights  should  be  controlled  by 
switches  conveniently  located. 

It  is  suggested  that  base  plugs  be  provided  in  corridors,  dining 
rooms,  recreation  rooms,  kitchen  and  laundry,  for  the  purpose  of 
connecting  up  such  electrical  appliances  as  may  be  needed  in 
cleaning.  At  points  close  to  stairs,  fire  exits  and  hose  reels, 
gas  pilot  lights  protected  with  red  shades  should  be  provided  in 
full  view  from  the  corridor. 

Grade  E  Buildings. — In  addition  to  the  minimum  requirements 
listed  for  Grade  F  buildings,  the  following  should  be  provided 
for  those  of  Grade  E. 

The  bath  should  be  separated  from  general  toilet.  At  least 
one  bathtub  should  be  provided,  in  addition  to  showers. 

Bedrooms  should  have  a  minimum  area  of  85  sq.  ft.,  with  a 
minimum  width  of  8  feet. 

Clothes  closets  should  be  directly  connected  with  bedrooms. 

Lights  for  bedrooms  should  include,  in  addition  to  bracket 
fixture,  a  ceiling  light  controlled  by  switch  at  door. 

Grade  D  Buildings. — The  single  men,  for  whom  the  Grade  D 
buildings  are  designed,  will  be  the  more  highly  skilled  mechanics, 


340  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

shop  foremen,  minor  superintendents  and  the  higher  salaried 
office  employees.  These  demand  higher  standards  of  living  and 
insist  upon  a  type  of  building  and  policy  of  operation  which  will 
permit  an  expression  of  their  individuality.  This  leads  to  a 
desire  for  a  smaller  and  more  intimate  type  of  dwelling  place, 
where  occupants  may  enjoy  a  close  comradeship.  This  is  best 
accomplished  in  a  building  operated  by  the  residents  themselves 
as  a  club  house.  The  positions  occupied  by  this  class,  being  of 
a  more  permanent  character,  create  a  desire  on  the  part  of  the 
men  for  congenial,  homelike  living  quarters,  in  which  they  can 
feel  a  personal  controlling  interest. 

This  grade,  therefore,  should  have  a  comparatively  large  room, 
to  be  used  as  a  general  living  or  reading  and  smoking  room. 
In  addition,  another  good  sized  room  should  be  provided  in 
which  a  billiard  or  pool  table,  card  tables,  and  games  can  be 
accommodated. 

The  bedrooms  should  be  larger  than  in  Grade  E  or  F  houses, 
in  order  that  more  furniture  may  be  comfortably  arranged. 
Toilet  and  bath  accommodations  should  be  more  amply  provided. 
The  building  generally  should  have  a  more  domestic,  homelike 
character  than  the  larger,  lower  grade  boarding  houses,  the 
very  nature  of  which  precludes  the  possibility  of  overcoming  the 
feeling  of  institutionalism  which  always  exists. 

QUARTERS  FOR  SINGLE  WOMEN 

Special  buildings  for  housing  women  will  in  most  developments 
be  found  unnecessary.  In  many  cases  a  few  single  women  will 
readily  find  quarters  as  lodgers  with  private  families.  However, 
there  are  some  industries  which  employ  women  almost  exclusively, 
and  it  will  be  necessary  to  provide  suitable  quarters  for  them, 
especially  since  the  great  majority  of  these  workers  are  young 
girls,  many  of  whom  have  left  homes  in  other  localities  in  order 
to  obtain  employment.  The  result  of  providing  such  quarters 
will  accomplish  great  attendant  benefits  in  the  happier  social 
life  and  companionship,  not  to  speak  of  moral  and  social  protec- 
tion which  the  girls  enjoy. 

Management  of  Boarding  Houses. — The  operation  of  these 
units  is  similar  to  the  corresponding  units  for  men,  with  the 
difference  that  a  matron  officiates  as  the  custodian.  It  is  sug- 
gested that,  in  the  operation  of  this  type,  it  will  be  found  that  a 


BUILDINGS  OTHER  THAN  HOUSES  341 

board  of  control,  elected  by  the  lodgers  from  their  own  number 
and  working  with  the  matron,  will  greatly  facilitate  the  problems 
of  management  and  eliminate  friction  between  the  authoritative 
agency  and  those  enjoying  the  privileges  offered  by  such  housing. 

Requirements  of  Boarding  Houses. — The  subject  of  quarters 
for  women  workers  will  be  considered  under  one  general  grade. 
All  requirements  relating  purely  to  the  building  technique,  such 
as  fire  protection,  minimum  story  heights,  heating,  lighting,  ven- 
tilation, cellars,  windows,  room  sizes  and  materials,  may  be  gov- 
erned by  the  same  suggestions  as  offered  under  "Quarters  for 
Single  Men". 

Requirements  for  rooms  should  be  the  same  as  those  listed 
for  men's  units,  except  that  bathrooms  and  toilet  rooms  must  be 
separated,  though  arranged  to  communicate. 

A  kitchenette  and  a  sewing  room  should  be  provided  on  al- 
ternate floors.  Trunk  rooms  should  be  supplied,  as  minimum 
sized  bedrooms  will  not  accommodate  all  the  belongings  of  the 
lodger. 

First  floor  should  have  matron's  office,  so  placed  as  to  oversee 
main  entrances,  access  to  sleeping  quarters  and  entrance  to 
dining  room.  There  should  be  provided,  in  addition  to  main 
recreation  or  assembly  room,  one  reception  parlor  for  every 
twenty  women.  These  may  be  arranged  so  as  to  form  one  large 
reception  room  when  so  desired. 

Minimum  provision  for  plumbing  should  be: — one  water  closet 
per  ten  women;  one  shower  per  ten  women;  one  lavatory  per 
six  women;  one  bath  tub  per  twenty-five  women.  Require- 
ments other  than  these  should  be  the  same  as  suggested  for  men's 
units.  Toilet  accommodations,  with  quarters,  for  the  matron 
and  resident  help  should  be  provided. 

Laundry  facilities,  sufficient  to  enable  the  lodgers  to  do  washing 
of  clothes,  should  be  provided  in  the  basement. 

The  kitchen  should  have  outside  access,  and  be  separated  from 
the  dining  room  by  a  service  pantry. 

STORES  AND  APARTMENTS 

The  reason  for  including  stores  as  a  part  of  the  necessities  is 
because  of  the  partial  or  complete  isolation  of  the  usual  industrial 
development  from  such  necessary  service  units.  The  element  of 
isolation  may  require,  in  connection  with  the  store,  provision  for 


342 


INDUSTRIE  HOUSING 


living  quarters  to  accommodate  the  store  owner  or  whomso- 
ever shall  have  charge  of  the  business.  In  some  instances  it  will 
be  found  economical  to  arrange  a  store  room  as  a  part  of  a  regu- 
lar private  dwelling  house.  The  size  of  store  room  thus  obtained, 
however,  is  impractical  except  for  use  as  a  very  modest  confec- 
tionery, shoemaker's  shop,  or  some  such  less  important  but 
nevertheless  serviceable  unit. 

An  economy  can  be  effected  by  creating  a  multiple  unit,  com- 
posed of  several  stores  and  apartments  above  the  same.  This 
also  allows  greater  variation  as  to  size  of  store  rooms,  for  when 


Fig.  53. — A  group  store  building,  Yorkship  Village. 

properly  designed,  the  space  can  be  subject  to  many  subdivi- 
sions, permitting  small  or  large  store  units  as  desired.  Again, 
the  location  of  apartments  for  rent  in  the  second  and  third  stories 
over  stores  may  present  an  economical  solution  for  certain  prob- 
lems. The  arrangement  on  Collings  Road,  Yorkship  Village  at 
Camden,  N.  J.,  is  an  illustration.     (See  Fig.  53.) 

In  the  larger  units,  the  inability  to  forecast  when  the  apart- 
ments will  be  occupied  by  those  operating  the  stores  requires  that 
they  be  designed  to  permit  renting,  either  separately  or  together. 
In  either  case- there  should  be  provided  a  private  entrance  door 
and  stairs  leading  to  the  apartments  located  on  the  second  floor. 


BUI  1. DISCS  OTHER  THAN  HOUSES  343 

A  rear  door  and  service  stair  should  be  provided  for  each  apart- 
ment and  a  rear  door  for  each  store. 

A  stairway,  which  in  most  cases  can  be  arranged  under  the 
stairs  leading  to  apartments,  should  be  provided  to  allow  cir- 
culation from  store  room  to  a  portion  of  the  basement  divided 
off  for  use  as  a  stock  or  storage  room  for  the  store.  In  addition, 
an  exterior  hatchway  stair  should  be  provided  for  bringing  in 
supplies,  and  as  a  means  for  reaching  the  basement  for  the  apart- 
ment tenant,  when  the  apartment  is  rented  separately.  In  this 
case  a  portion  of  the  basement  should  be  divided  off  for  use  as  a 
laundry. 

The  method  of  heating  the  building  will  depend  upon  how  the 
building  is  to  be  operated.  If  a  janitor  is  to  be  employed  by  the 
owner,  a  central  heating  plant  should  be  provided  in  a  portion  of 
the  basement  separated  from  the  portions  allotted  to  the  various 
tenants,  and  the  rentals  fixed  at  a  figure  to  cover  heating.  If  a 
janitor  is  not  to  be  employed,  individual  heating  units  must  be 
provided  for  each  portion  of  the  building  subject  to  a  separate 
rental.  The  latter  method  frequently  results  in  serious  conflict, 
and  the  first  cost  is  large.  Therefore,  it  is  suggested  that  gen- 
erally, inasmuch  as  stores  and  apartments  are  usually  rented 
together,  a  single  unit  heating  system  be  provided  for  each  pair; 
and,  in  the  event  that  the  storekeeper  desires  to  sublet  the 
apartment,  he  be  obliged  to  furnish  the  heat  therewith. 

Requirements  of  Store  Rooms. — While  no  exact  information 
can  be  given,  the  average  size  for  a  retail  grocery  store,  drug 
store  or  butcher  shop,  catering  to  an  ordinary,  sized  suburban 
trade,  is  approximately  1,000  to  1,200  sq.   ft.  in  area. 

Fixtures,  whether  furnished  by  the  owner  or  lessee,  should  be 
provided  as  an  item  separate  and  apart  from  the  general  contract 
for  the  building.  Some  plan,  however,  for  a  general  arrange- 
ment of  such  furniture,  so  as  to  allow  freedom  of  circulation, 
should  be  kept  in  mind,  in  order  to  design  the  store  space  intel- 
ligently with  a  view  to  future  service. 

The  finished  floor  should  be  a  good  grade  of  rift  sawed,  yellow 
pine,  tongue  and  grooved  flooring,  with  an  oil  finish,  laid  on  a 
counter  base  of  8-inch  flooring. 

A  sink  with  hot  and  cold  running  water  should  be  furnished 
in  the  store  room,  and  a  toilet  provided  in  the  cellar. 

Show  windows  of  a  size  and  character  to  satisfactorily  display 
goods  should  be  designed.  These  will  be  further  considered  in 
a  later  discussion  on  exterior  appearance  of  the  building. 


344  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Posts  should  be  eliminated  as  far  as  possible.  This  may 
mean  arranging  store  units  in  suitable  widths  in  order  to  allow- 
clear  spans  without  use  of  excessively  large  beams  and  girders. 

Transoms  over  doors  and  windows  in  exterior  walls  should  be 
provided  to  insure  ventilation  and  light.  Care  should  be  exer- 
cised to  prevent  the  windows  interfering  with  shelving  and  to 
insure  the  best  use  of  wall  space  for  stacking  goods. 

Electric  lighting  should  be  provided,  with  lights  controlled  by 
switch  at  a  panel  board.  Lights  for  show  windows  should  be 
controlled  either  by  local  snap  switches  or  by  separate  controls  on 
the  main  panel  board.  A  gas  pilot  light  should  be  arranged  for 
use  in  emergency  cases  and  for  burning  at  night. 

Requirements  of  Apartments. — General  minimum  requirements 
listed  for  similar  types  under  general  housing  apply  with  equal 
force  to  apartments. 

Buildings,  in  which  the  apartments  partake  of  the  nature  of 
duplex  apartments,  should  not  be  over  two  stories  in  height 
unless  permitted  otherwise  by  ordinance.  They  need  not  be 
fireproof,  except  where  the  store  room  is  used  as  a  garage,  in 
which  case  that  particular  portion  of  the  building  must  be  entirely 
fireproof. 

In  store  buildings  of  three  stories  the  apartments  should  be 
subject  to  fire  protection,  insofar  as  enclosing  stairs  and  stair 
halls  with  masonry  walls  and  providing  fire  escapes  suitably 
located  so  as  to  serve  each  apartment. 

Exterior  Appearance. — The  feature  of  exterior  appearance 
which  will  need  careful  handling  to  avoid  a  feeling  of  commercial- 
ism and  lack  of  refinement,  is  the  show  window.  To  make  store 
buildings  harmonize  in  design  with  the  rest  of  the  development, 
best  results  can  be  obtained  by  arranging  the  show  windows  in 
the  form  of  square  or  octagonal  bays.  This  treatment  lends  an 
impression  of  domesticity  and  offers  several  points  of  practical 
advantage. 

First,  in  order  to  further  the  interest  of  general  harmony  in  the  placing 
of  the  building  with  relation  to  neighboring  dwellings,  this  permits  the 
projecting  of  bays  which  would  not  be  possible  in  city  stores  built  close 
to  the  sidewalk  line. 

Second,  in  many  stores  a  screen,  dwarf  partition  may  be  placed  across 
the  bay  opening,  on  a  line  with  the  main  building  wall.  This  serves  as 
a  vertical  plane  to  back  up  the  display  and  at  the  same  time  makes  the 
problem  of  heating  easier,  as  it  partly  takes  care  of  the  large  glass 
exposure. 


BUILDINGS  OTHER  THAN  HOUSES  345 

In  stores  which  require  heavy  deliveries  of  goods,  facilities  for 
handling  the  merchandise  should  be  so  arranged  that  ease  of 
access  for  delivery  trucks  will  be  obtained  and  also  that  such 
features  will  be  seen  as  little  as  possible. 

SPECIAL  SERVICE  BUILDINGS 

In  addition  to  stores  it  will  often  be  found  necessary  to  include 
in  the  development  other  service  buildings,  in  order  to  supply  the 
needs  of  the  community,  such  as  laundry,  refrigerating  plant 
and  bakery.  The  service  rendered  by  these  units  does  not  make 
it  necessary  to  intrude  them  as  integral  parts  of  the  housing 
scheme.  In  fact  they  should  be  segregated  as  much  as  possible, 
as  they  are  not  likely  to  prove  attractive  to  the  residential 
districts. 

Combined  Building. — If  the  operation  of  these  units  is  to  be 
conducted  by  the  industry  sponsoring  the  development,  or  even 
by  private  enterprise,  in  such  a  manner  that  they  could  all  be 
provided  for  in  one  building,  considerable  economy  would  result. 
This  would  not  only  be  true  in  building  cost,  but  also  in  operation, 
as  less  help  would  be  employed  and  the  delivery  feature  would  be 
simplified. 

To  illustrate  further  the  economy  which  could  be  realized  by 
housing  all  these  service  features  in  one  building,  a  type  of  building 
for  the  purpose  is  herewith  suggested.  The  building  would  con- 
sist of  a  two  story  structure  and  basement,  the  first  floor  to  be 
of  sufficient  height  above  grade  to  allow  ample  opportunity  for 
lighting  and  thoroughly  ventilating  the  basement  in  which  would 
be  located  the  laundry.  A  portion  of  the  first  floor  would  be 
used  as  garage  space,  being  so  designed  as  to  come  approximately 
at  grade  level.  The  remainder  of  the  first  floor  would  be  used  as 
a  refrigerating  plant,  general  office  and  a  room  for  use  as  a  shop 
and  supply  room,  in  connection  with  the  garage.  The  second 
floor  would  be  used  as  the  bakery.  An  elevator,  of  sufficient 
capacity  to  serve  for  both  laundry  and  bakery,  should  be  in- 
cluded in  the  design,  so  located  as  not  only  to  serve  both  these 
units  but  also  to  open  directly  on  the  shipping  platform. 

By  this  arrangement,  economy  from  multiple  units  would 
obtain  and,  in  addition,  one  garage  space  with  shop  and  supply 
room,  as  well  as  one  heating  system  and  power  plant,  only,  would 
be  necessary;  whereas  those  features  would  have  to  exist  in  each 
building  if  arranged  in  separate  units.     Naturally  the  features 


346  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

enumerated  when  occurring  in  the  multiple  unit  would  be  larger 
than  in  each  of  the  separate  units,  but  they  would  be  far  less 
expensive  so  combined  than  as  three  separate  units. 

The  building  as  outlined  above  should  be  of  fireproof  construc- 
tion, with  a  floor  load  of  three  hundred  pounds  for  the  first  floor 
and  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  for  the  second  floor.  The  roof 
might  be  of  regular  wood  construction,  either  pitched  or  flat  as 
desired,  providing  in  either  case  sufficient  roof  air  space  is 
obtained. 

In  the  event  of  the  units  being  built  either  as  separate  buildings 
or  as  a  multiple  unit,  the  requirements  as  to  capacity  and  equip- 
ment would  be  the  same.  In  order  to  give  an  idea  as  to  what 
would  be  necessary  in  this  respect,  the  following  information 
is  given. 

Laundry  Capacity. — The  size  of  laundry  required  will  depend 
not  so  much  upon  the  number  of  houses  as  upon  the  class  of  the 
people  to  be  served  and  the  number  of  persons  housed  in  boarding 
houses.  In  addition  to  these  requirements,  work  to  be  done  for 
the  offices  and  workrooms  of  the  factory,  when  such  are  located 
close  at  hand,  must  be  fully  estimated. 

We  will  assume  an  hypothetical  case  of  a  laundry,  capable  of 
turning  out  a  certain  amount  of  work  per  day,  and  on  this  basis 
give  a  list  of  the  equipment  required  and  the  size  of  the  build- 
ing which  will  be  necessary  to  accommodate  such  equipment. 
For  the  purpose  of  this  illustration,  take  a  laundry  of  such 
capacity  as  to  be  able  to  turn  out  approximately  1600  lb.  of  laund- 
ered goods  per  day  of  eight  hours.  The  average  weights  of 
various  articles  is  presented  in  order  to  give  an  idea  as  to  what 
the  proposed  capacity  would  mean  when  translated  into  num- 
ber of  things  to  be  laundered: 

Man's  shirt,  one  pound;  underwear  (summer),  34  lb- ; 
(winter)  1^  lb.  Woman's  shirt  waist,  34  lb.;  muslin  petti- 
coat, %  lb.  Double  bed  sheet,  2  lb.  Bath  towel,  3^  lb.; 
face  towel,  34  1°.;  small  hand  towel,  }£  lb.  Bed  spread,  4  lb. 
Handkerchiefs,  34  lb-  Per  dozen.  Collars,  z/±  lb.  per  dozen. 
Table  Cloth,  2  lb.     Napkin,  %  lb. 

In  a  family  of  two  parents  and  two  children,  the  average  wash- 
ing is  about  30  lb.  per  week,  and  since  the  proposed  laundry  could 
handle  9,600  lb.  in  six  working  days,  320  families  could  be  served. 

Such  a  laundry,  to  be  properly  balanced  in  its  mechanical 
equipment,  should  include  the  following  machines: — 


Hill. discs  other  THAN  HOUSES  347 

Two  Washers,  36  in.  by  54  in.— 2.0  H.P.  Two  Electric  Irons  and 

One  Extractor,  30  in. — 5.0  H.P.  Special  Boards 

One  Flat  Work  Ironer  100  in.— 0.3  H.P.  One  Soap  Tank 

One  Dry  Tumbler  30  in.  by  42  in.— 1.5  H.P.  Two  Metal  Truck  Tubs. 

A  minimum  area  of  about  560  sq.  ft.,  is  necessary  to  house  I  his 
equipment.  "When  smaller  plants  are  desired,  the  best  policy 
is  to  arrange  the  machines  in  any  combination  desired  and  oper- 
ate them  as  a  group  or  unit  by  one  motor.  Such  group  units 
are  made  up  and  carried  in  stock  by  leading  manufacturers  of 
laundry  equipment.  All  the  machines  should  be  motor  driven. 
High  pressure  steam  should  be  run  to  the  washers,  flat  Work 
ironer  and  dry  tumbler;  but,  if  necessary,  heating  by  gas  or  elec- 
tricity may  be  substituted.  In  addition  to  the  laundry  proper, 
a  room  in  connection  with  the  same  should  be  planned  to  be  used 
as  a  sorting  and  marking  room. 

Bakery  Arrangement. — The  size  of  the  bakery,  like  the  laundry, 
depends  upon  local  conditions  of  demand,  and  these  offer  such 
a  wide  variation  that,  here  again,  the  discussion  must  center  around 
an  hypothetical  illustration.  However,  before  going  into  a 
special  case,  a  list  of  articles  of  equipment  for  any  bakery  will 
be  suggested. 

The  list  should  include  the  following: 

An  oven,  preferably  a  portable  type  made  of  sheet  steel,  as 
this  is  less  cumbersome,  more  easily  installed  and  requires  no  special 
provisions  in  the  way  of  foundation  or  general  building  construction 
than  an  ordinary  kitchen  range. 

In  connection  with  the  oven  there  should  be  a  proof  oven  for  rais- 
ing the  dough  preliminary  to  the  baking. 

A  combination  piece  of  equipment,  in  which  will  be  found  a  flour 
bin,  elevator,  flour  sifter,  dough  mixer  and  cake  mixer,  operated  as  a 
unit  by  electric  current,  will  be  both  economical  and  efficient. 

A  small  stove  should  be  furnished  for  cooking  boiled  custards,  icings 
and  for  the  mixing  of  various  ingredients  requiring  heating. 

There  should  also  be  suitable  cases  for  keeping  utensils  and  gen- 
eral supplies. 

A  refrigator,  in  close  connection  with  the  bakery,  will  be  necessary. 

A  sink  with  hot  and  cold  running  water  and  a  number  of  work 
tables  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  bakery  products  should  be 
located  conveniently  to  both  mixing  machine  and  oven.  One  of  such 
table  should  be  fitted  with  pan  rack. 

The  installation  of  an  ice  cream  freeze]-,  ice  crusher  and  also  an  ice 
cream  cabinet,  connected  to  the  refrigeration  plant  in  the  case  of  the 


348  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

combined  service  building  is  suggested  as  a  desirable  feature,  although 
one  which  is  not  absolutely  necessary. 

Assuming  the  case  of  a  bakery,  equipped  with  a  three  deck 
oven,  with  an  area  of  74  in.  X  92  in.,  and  the  other  apparatus 
of  such  a  size  as  to  make  a  well  balanced  unit,  the  capacity  may 
be  figured  as  follows:  Considering  the  making  of  bread  alone, 
it  will  be  found  that  the  oven  above  specified  can  bake  310  loaves 
at  one  time  and,  allowing  one  hour  for  a  baking  and  8  hours  for  a 
day's  run,  the  output  for  a  day  would  be  2,480  loaves.  This 
computation  is  merely  to  give  an  idea  as  to  the  capacity  of  the 
oven  and  not  as  a  program  for  its  operation,  as  a  part  of  the  time 
the  oven  would  be  in  use  for  baking  pies,  cakes  or  other  products. 
In  order  to  house  this  equipment  in  a  suitable  manner,  a  room 
with  a  minimum  area  of  600  sq.  ft.  would  be  required.  In  ad- 
dition to  the  bakery  proper,  a  general  store  room  would  be  re- 
quired for  keeping  a  good  stock  of  supplies,  and  a  storage  space 
for  stacking  the  bakery  products  preparatory  to  delivery. 

Refrigerating  Plant. — The  suggestions  offered  concerning  the 
ice  plant  will  be  based  upon  an  equipment  with  a  capacity  of 
6,000  lb.  a  day  in  standard  blocks,  weighing  300  lb.  each.  The 
apparatus  for  manufacturing  ice  herein  described  is  assumed  to 
be  of  the  usual  type,  operating  on  the  principle  of  the  evaporation 
of  a  more  or  less  volatile  liquid,  this  being  maintained  by  a  vapor 
compression  machine.  The  principal  parts  are  a  refrigerator  or 
evaporator,  a  compression  pump,  and  a  condenser.  The  con- 
denser, compression  machine,  motor,  centrifugal  pump,  dehydra- 
tors,  air  receivers,  air  pump  and  filters  are  located  adjacent  to  the 
ice  making  tank  or  refrigerator.  In  the  case  where  such  tank 
occurs  on  the  first  floor,  the  refrigerating  machinery  may  be  lo- 
cated directly  under  it  in  the  basement. 

The  size  of  receptacle  required  for  the  ice  making  tank,  figured 
to  the  outside  of  the  insulation,  should  be  about  10  ft.  10  in.,  by 
11  ft.  2  in.,  by  4  ft.  8  in.  in  depth.  This  sized  tank  holds  twenty 
cans,  each  yielding  a  300-lb.  cake  of  ice.  A  freezing  requires 
about  eighteen  hours,  the  daily  capacity  can  be  figured  at  6000 
pounds.  In  event  the  tank  is  constructed  with  space  under  it,  the 
floor  should  be  waterproofed  with  great  care.  A  water  tank  should 
be  located  in  close  connection  with  the  ice  making  tank,  and  on 
the  same  level  as  the  refrigerator.  The  water,  which  has  been 
partially  cooled,  is  run  from  the  tank  into  the  cans,  which  serve 
as  moulds  for  making  the  cakes  of  ice. 


BUILDINGS  OTHER  THAN  HOUSES  \\\\\ 

A  light  type  of  traveling  crane  should  be  installed  for  lifting 
the  cans  out  of  the  refrigerator  after  the  ice  has  been  made. 
They  are  then  run  down  to  a  platform  at  the  end  of  the  refrigera- 
tor and  deposited  on  a  specially  designed  ice  chute.  Hot  water 
is  poured  on  the  can  and  the  ice,  after  mell  Lag  slightly,  is  released 
and  slides  down  the  chute  through  a  door,  which  automatically 
opens  under  pressure  of  the  ice  block  and  closes  after  the  ice 
has  entered  the  storage  room.  The  platform  for  handling  the  ice 
must  be  well  waterproofed  and  provided  with  a  drain,  as  much 
dripping  of  water  occurs. 

The  ice  storage  room  should  be  insulated  with  cork  throughout 
floors,  walls  and  ceiling.  The  door  that  admits  the  ice  from  theice 
handling  room  should  be  of  special  design  just  large  enough  to 
allow  the  ice  to  pass  through.  The  door  from  the  ice  storage  space 
to  shipping  platform  should  be  also  of  special  design  and  should 
follow  the  character  of  doors  used  in  large  refrigerators.  The  ice 
handling  room  should  be  about  8  ft.  6  in.  by  11  ft.  (>  in.,  and 
the  ice  storage  room  large  enough  to  permit  the  keeping  of  a 
surplus  stock  of  at  least  12,000  pounds. 

Hospital. — Medical  service  is  one  of  the  needs  which  cannot 
be  left  to  work  itself  out.  Since  in  many  cases  the  inducements 
offered  for  such  service,  in  compensation  and  living  conditions, 
especially  in  the  smaller  developments,  are  not  sufficiently  at- 
tractive, community  action  will  be  necessary  to  insure  the  benefits 
of  competent  medical  attention.  This,  in  its  simplest  form, 
should  result  in  the  establishment  of  a  dispensary  in  charge  of 
a  resident  physician,  and  in  the  employment  of  a  visiting  nurse. 

This  first  modest  measure  for  safeguarding  the  general  health 
may  be  all  that  the  situation  demands.  Many  developments 
will  not  require  the  establishment  of  a  general  hospital,  for  the 
reason  that  they  are  either  close  to  a  larger  community  in  which 
hospitals  exist,  or  because  they  are  close  to  an  industrial  plant  in 
which  an  emergency  hospital  is  maintained.  There  will  be 
found,  however,  many  isolated  industrial  developments  where  the 
provision  of  a  hospital  will  be  an  absolute  necessity.  Even  where, 
for  the  present,  they  have  been  considered  as  not  altogether 
essential,  it  is  probable  that  the  growing  demand  for  general 
dispensary  service  will  eventually  result  in  the  establishment  of 
such  a  unit . 

There  are  many  advantages  to  be  obtained  by  incorporating 
such  units  as  a  part  of  the  general   plan.     Not    only  can  belter 


350  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

treatment  be  given  the  sick,  but  also  there  is  available  the  im- 
measurable service  of  good  nursing,  which  is  quite  impossible  in 
many  crowded  private  dwellings.  The  hospital  serves  further 
as  a  barrier  against  the  spread  of  contagious  diseases  and  as  an 
almost  indispensable  help  in  time  of  such  need. 

In  order  that  it  may  not  be  an  undue  economic  burden  to  the 
community  or  to  the  company  operating  the  development,  the 
hospital  should  be  designed  so  that  a  portion,  only,  need  be 
built  at  first,  and  enlarged  to  keep  pace  with  the  general  growth 
of  the  community.  Moreover,  the  design  should  be  studied  so 
that  the  building  at  any  stage  of  its  development  should  look 
finished,  and  at  the  same  time  have  the  building  appear,  when 
complete,  as  though  it  had  been  built  all  at  one  time.  As  such 
design  occupies  a  special  field  of  its  own,  this  is  not  the  place  to 
express  details.  It  may  be  suggested,  however,  that  this  may 
be  done  by  employing  a  plan  in  which  a  central  portion  acts  as  a 
key  for  the  complete  building.  The  future  additions  will  be- 
come radiating  wings  connected  to  the  central  structure,  thus 
making  it  possible  to  segregate  any  portion  as  occasion  demands. 

BUILDINGS  FOR  SOCIAL  NEEDS 

Churches. — The  diverse  character  of  structures  required  by 
different  denominations  and  creeds  makes  suggestions  on  the 
subject  of  churches  difficult.  While  the  desire  for  such  buildings 
by  the  people  will  no  doubt  necessitate  their  ultimate  provision, 
greater  satisfaction  will  be  obtained  by  permitting  the  people 
themselves  to  determine  the  character  of  these  buildings. 
Whatever  the  expressed  tendency  of  the  people  may  be  as  to  the 
kind  of  church  preferred,  the  design  should  be  as  informal  as  is 
possible  to  maintain  a  churchly  feeling  and  expression. 

In  the  large  developments  it  will  often  be  necessary  to  provide 
two  or  more  such  edifices  to  meet  the  demands  of  varying  forms 
of  worship.  The  seating  capacity  and  facilities  will  depend  largely 
upon  the  denomination,  population  and  the  desires  of  the  people. 

School  Houses. — The  necessity  for  school  buildings  in  an  indus- 
trial development  may  be  due  either  to  complete  isolation  from 
already  established  institutions,  or  to  lack  of  accommodations  in 
existing  public  school  buildings,  which  makes  it  impossible  to 
take  care  of  the  sudden  influx  of  population. 

While  a  great  amount  of  study  and  care  has  been  given  to  the 
large  city  schools,  the  problem  of  the  small  school  has  been  neg- 


BUILDINGS  OTHER  THAN  HOUSES  351 

lected.  The  result  has  been  thai  either  buildings  of  the  most 
primitive  character  have  been  provided,  or  when  the  demand  for 
something  more  than  the  "little  country  school"  prevailed,, 
pretentious  imitations  of  city  schools  have  been  resorted  to. 
These,  like  most  imitations,  have  generally  failed  of  being 
satisfactory,  because  in  the  endeavor  to  gain  a  semblance  not 
justified,  the  more  important  considerations  of  economy  and 
appropriateness  have  been  for  the  most  part  ignored. 

Urban  and  rural  developments  require  school  buildings  of 
different  character.  In  t  he  former,  high  land  values  demand  that 
less  proper!  y  be  used  for  this  purpose  than  may  be  allowed  in  the 
rural  development.  The  result  will  be  that  the  architectural 
character  of  the  building  thus  obtained  will  harmonize  better 
with  the  general  housing;  which,  following  the  same  line  of  reason- 
ing, runs  more  to  the  larger  multiple  unit  in  the  urban  than  in 
the  rural  community.  This  should  not  be  interpreted  to  mean 
the  building  of  a  small  imitation  city  school  for  the  particular 
use  of  an  urban  development,  but  should  rather  result  in  the 
building  of  a  real  city  school  by  cooperating  with  the  officers  of 
the  community  at  large,  and  making  it  an  extension  of  the  regular 
public  school  administration.  This  action  narrows  the  problems 
of  the  school  house  to  such  an  extent  that  its  consideration  here 
would  only  be  necessary  for  the  rural  districts. 

For  these  districts,  the  "Pavilion  T/vpe  School"  offers  so 
many  advantages,  that  it  would  appear  to  be  the  logical  type  to 
use.  This  school  building  is  a  one  story  structure,  built  in  units, 
the  general  plan  of  which  may  be  subject  to  any  treatment 
desired.  It  is  particularly  adaptable  to  rural  districts,  in  that 
it  provides  accommodations  only  as  they  are  needed;  and  as 
each  addition  is  in  the  form  of  a  complete  architectural  unit,  the 
project  at  all  times  gives  the  appearance  of  a  completed  plan. 
The  rather  extravagant  use  of  property  is  justifiable  in  view  of  the 
low  property  costs. 

Some  of  the  more  important  advantages  obtained  by  the  use 
of  this  type  are  as  follows: 

1.  Architectural  harmony  with  the  general  housing  is  possible,  be- 
cause the  design  of  the  small  units  can  be  maintained  in  style  with  the 

smaller  detached  house  unit,  which  is  the  logical  house  type  for  this 
kind  of  a  development. 

2.  The  units,  being  one  story  structures  of  moderate  size  and  semi- 
detached, are  readily  provided  with  ample  light  and  ventilation. 


352  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

3.  The  fire  hazard  is  reduced  to  a  minimum  and  no  expensive  provi- 
sions for  fire  protection  are  necessary;  moreover,  the  most  economical 
methods  of  construction  may  be  employed. 

4.  The  covered  passageways  between  classroom  units  may  serve  as 
outdoor  classrooms  under  favorable  weather  conditions. 

5.  The  initial  structure  need  not  make  provision  for  facilities  which 
will  be  necessary  with  future  growth,  but  which  are  not  needed  at  the 
inception  of  the  town. 

Theatres. — The  moving  picture  theatre  presents  one  of  the 
most  common  forms  of  entertainment  for  an  industrial  com- 
munity development.  It  is  an  economic  factor.  First,  the 
building  itself,  differs  from  the  regular  theatre  in  that  it  needs 
no  complicated  stage  with  equipment,  and  is  inexpensive  in  con- 
struction. Second,  the  low  admission  price  puts  it  within  the 
reach  of  the  lowest  paid  worker.  Third,  the  length  of  time  con- 
sumed in  presenting  one  complete  performance  makes  possible 
two  or  more  performances  a  night  and  allows  a  small  seating 
capacity  to  meet  the  demand  of  a  large  number  of  people. 

The  capacity  of  the  theatre  will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the 
community.  To  arrive  at  an  approximate  seating  capacity 
required,  it  is  suggested  that  seats  be  provided  to  accommodate 
every  evening  one  person  from  each  family  and  one  person 
out  of  every  four  single  workers. 

Considering  exterior  appearance,  again  it  is  suggested  that 
the  intent  of  the  general  development  in  the  observance  of  archi- 
tectural style  be  followed. 

Whether  building  codes  or  ordinances  govern  its  construction 
or  not,  the  theatre  should  include  the  provisions  that  are  gen- 
erally accepted  as  proper  safeguards  in  case  of  fire  or  panic. 
Most  important  among  such  recommendations  will  be  the  pro- 
vision of  fire  exits  marked  with  suitable  guiding  signs  and  lights, 
and  fitted  with  doors  to  swing  out,  giving  access  to  outside  fire 
escapes  or  areas  open  to  the  street.  These  exits  should  exist  on 
two  sides  of  the  building,  in  addition  to  the  main  front  entrance. 

Community  House. — There  are  a  number  of  general  community 
activities  which  may  be  provided  for  separately  or  together  under 
one  general  management.  Such  general  community  features  as 
recreation  fields,  play  grounds,  assembly  halls,  day  nurseries, 
club  houses  and  gymnasia,  must  finally  be  provided  in  a  well 
balanced,  healthy  community.  Whether  they  shall  be  a  part  of 
the  general  predetermined  scheme  or  whether  thay  shall  result 
as  a  spontaneous  expression  on  the  part  of  the  people  is  a  matter 


BUILDINGS  OTHER  THAN  HOUSES  353 

of  policy  to  be  determined  by  the  promoters  of  the  development. 
If  the  latter  policy  is  observed,  nothing  need  be  suggested  here, 
except  to  provide  a  place  and  an  appropriate  setting  in  the 
general  plan,  as  the  desires  of  the  particular  people  concerned 
will  become  manifest  as  the  idea  develops. 

However,  some  modest  provision  for  service  of  this  kind  should 
be  made,  as  a  stimulus  to  community  life.  With  this  end  in  view, 
which  shall  be  so  limited  as  to  leave  opportunity  for  freedom  by 
the  people  in  the  pursuit  of  their  social  activities,  a  general  com- 
munity house  is  suggested. 

The  house  should  provide  suitable  space  for  the  following 
elements  of  service : 

1.  A  day  nursery. 

2.  A  gymnasium  (separate  wash  rooms  and  showers  for  sexes). 

3.  A  kindergarten. 

4.  Four  or  five  classrooms. 

If  circumstances  require,  these  additional  features  may  be 
added : 

5.  A  bathroom  in  connection  with  nursery. 

6.  Two  club  rooms. 

7.  A  general  assembly  room. 

8.  A  general  dining  room. 

9.  A  kitchen. 

10.  A  diet  kitchen  in  connection  with  nursery. 

11.  Quarters  for  the  matron  and  help. 

In  addition,  a  playground  should  be  provided. 

A  building  so  constituted  would  permit  working  mothers  to 
leave  their  children,  secure  in  the  knowledge  that  they  would  be 
well  cared  for.  Such  children  as  were  of  an  age  to  attend  the 
regular  school  could  not  only  go  to  the  community  house  for 
luncheon,  but  after  school  return  to  enjoy  the  privileges  of  the 
playground,  or  the  gymnasium  in  inclement  weather. 

Sewing  classes  for  women  and  girls  and  general  courses  of 
study  for  adults  could  be  offered  at  night,  as  well  as  the  privi- 
lege of  using  the  gymnasium  and  club  rooms.  The  assembly 
hall  could  serve  for  a  general  meeting  place,  for  holding  of  dances, 
giving  general  lectures  and  many  other  forms  of  entertainment. 
In  a  word,  the  community  house  would  bespeak  welfare  work,  and 
by  having  the  various  community  activities  under  one  general 
management  and  in  one  building,  reduce  the  operation  and  build- 
ing costs  and  maintenance  to  a  minimum. 

23 


CHAPTER  XII 

ADMINISTRATION  AND  SUPERVISION  OF 
CONSTRUCTION 

Organization  and   Planning — Contract  and   Specifica- 
tions— Supervision  of  Construction 

ORGANIZATION  AND  PLANNING 

Character  and  Scope. — In  the  development  of  an  industrial 
housing  project  the  effective  organization  and  wise  direction  of 
a  competent  and  experienced  personnel  is  a  prime  requisite  to 
success,  if  the  result  is  to  be  judged  on  the  basis  of  economy, 
attractiveness,  saleability  and  good  living  conditions.  To  a  large 
extent  satisfactory  results  will  depend,  first,  upon  the  selection  of 
fully  competent  and  experienced  services,  and  second,  upon  the 
laying  down  of  carefully  considered  and  coordinated  organiza- 
tion, planning  and  construction  policies.  The  expert  services 
of  the  engineer,  the  town  planner,  the  architect,  the  realtor  and 
the  constructor: — all  are  required.  And  the  several  problems 
falling  within  the  province  of  each  are  to  be  solved,  so  that  the 
solutions  may  be  not  only  technically  correct,  but  also  economi- 
cally sound,  and  so  that  the  way  each  thing  is  done  may  bear 
the  proper  relation  to  the  scheme  as  a  whole. 

Group  Management. — The  building  of  a  housing  project  can 
neither  be  considered  as  wholly  an  architectural  nor  an  engineering 
problem,  but  rather  as  a  merging  of  opinions  and  talents  of  each 
profession  into  a  consistent  conception.  As  there  are  a  multitude 
of  elements  which  enter  into  the  final  plan,  the  factors  of  control 
and  coordination  become  most  important,  and  it  is  therefore  neces- 
sary to  work  out  a  practical  form  of  organization  and  to  formulate 
the  policies  of  procedure  in  accordance  with  which  the  work  shall 
proceed. 

Executive  Control. — A  close  contact  between  the  owner  and 
the  organization  provided  to  manage  and  supervise  the 
development  is  essential.  This  can  best  be  accomplished  by  the 
designation  of  an  official  by  the  owner,  upon  whom  the  necessary 

354 


ADMINISTRATION  AND  SUPERVISION  OF  CONSTRUCTION    355 

authority  is  conferred  to  fix  policies,  1o  make  decisions,  to  execute 
contracts,  to  expend  funds  and  to  exercise  similar  important 
functions.  The  direction  of  the  work  and  the  immediate  control 
of  the  housing  organization  should  be  centralized  in  an  executive, 
who  possesses  the  necessary  qualifications  of  leadership  and  who 
has  had  the  necessary  experience  in  directing  the  planning  and 
construction  of  large  projects.  Special  t  raining  in  directing  the 
design  and  in  technical  details  will  be  most  helpful,  providing  the 
man  also  has  business  experience  and  executive  ability. 

Organization  Chart. — The  details  of  the  organization  for  plan- 
ning and  supervising  the  operation,  as  indicated  in  the  suggested 
chart  (see  Fig.  54),  will  depend  upon  the  extent  and  character 
of  the  work  to  be  handled.  Modifications  in  the  initial  form  of 
organization  will  necessarily  be  made  from  time  to  time  as  the 
work  proceeds.  The  services  for  some  will  be  merely  of  an  ad- 
visory nature;  for  others,  they  will  be  required  during  part  or  all 
of  the  work.  The  administrative  department,  with  a  force  of 
employees  and  assistants,  varied  to  suit  the  requirements, will  be 
needed  throughout  the  life  of  the  organization;  while  the  greater 
part  of  those  engaged  upon  the  surveys,  designs  and  plans  can  be 
dispensed  with  upon  their  completion,  except  for  those  neces- 
sarily retained  to  direct  construction. 

The  construction  department  may  not  be  organized  until  active 
construction  work  is  about  to  begin.  When  the  scope  of  the 
work  is  relatively  small,  the  size  of  the  organization  may  be 
accordingly  reduced  and  simplified,  by  consolidation  of  duties 
and  functions.  Large  projects  will  require  a  greater  subdivision 
than  that  assumed  in  the  typical  organization  chart.  The 
general  object  to  be  sought  in  starting  an  organization,  is 
such  a  division  and  delegation  of  responsibility  and  authority, 
under  proper  control,  as  will  enable  each  employee  to  handle 
definite  duties  and  functions,  with  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
measure  and  limits  of  his  authority. 

Method  of  Procedure. — The  controlling  features,  requirements 
and  policies  should  bo  laid  down  at  the  outset  and  a  program  of 
procedure  in  preliminary  form  should  then  be  adopted.  The 
earlier  the  method  of  procedure  is  decided  upon,  the  less  likeli- 
hood there  will  be  of  incurring  delays  and  costly  mistakes.  The 
object  of  working  out  a  well  considered  plan  of  procedure  is  to 
assure  the  orderly  and  economic  prosecution  of  the  work  and 
various  stages,   and   to  avoid  loss  of  effort,   duplication   and 


356 


INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 


conflict  in  authority.     Such  a  plan  may  be  considered  as  analog- 
ous to  a  routing  plan  in  a  manufacturing  process;  beginning  with 


Administration 


Office 

Management 


Stenographic 
Clerical 
Filing 
Records 


Auditing 


Accounting 

Payrolls 

Financial 

Statements 
Payments 
Collections 


Executive 
Authority 


Management 


Legal 


Real  Estate 


Financial 


Planning 

and 
Design 


Construction 


Engineering 


Surveys 
Designs 
Contracts  and 

Specifications 
Record  Plans 


Town 
Planning 


Street  Arrange- 
ment 

Block,  and  Lot 
Subdivision 

Landscape 
Treatment 

Planting 

Parks 

Playgrounds 


•—      Architecture 


House  plans 
Public  Build- 
ings 
Other  Build- 
ings  


Materials 
and 
Plant 


Purchasing 


Quotations  and 
Bids 
Orders 
Traffic 


Bills  of 

Material 
Requisitions 
Checking 
Inspection 
Storage 
Delivery 


Labor 


Employment 

Superintendence 

Commissary 


Field  _ 
Accounting 


Tirrfe  keeping 
Distribution  of 

Costs 
Reports 


Supervision 


Lines  &  .grades 
Inspection 


Fig.  54. — Organization  chart  indicating  form  of  organization  for  the  planning 
and  supervision  of  an  important  industrial  housing  project. 

the  making  of  the  designs  and  working  drawings,  then  passing 
from  department  to  department  and  from  shop  to  shop;  all  in 
accordance  with  a  carefully  prearranged  scheme,  the   finished 


ADMINISTRATION  AND  SUPERVISION  OF  COXSTltrcriOX    '.\'u 

article  finally  emerges  a  completed  product,  conforming  in  all 

respects  to  the  requirements. 

Elements  of  Program. — The  ordinary  procedure,  after  first 
having  ascertained   the  general   need  of  housing,   is  about  as 

follows: 

(a)  Determination  of  housing  requirements,  astothenumher — general 
type  and  allowable  cost  of  houses;  the  method  of  disposition— as  to 
whet  her  the  houses  will  be  rented  or  sold,  or  held  by  a  copartnership 
company,  or  by  a  combination  of  methods;  determination  of  the  approxi- 
mate amount  that  can  be  expended  upon  the  development  of  the  site 
and  in  providing  street  improvements  and  utilities. 

The  foregoing  constitutes  a  general  survey  of  the  situation  and 
leads  to  definite  conclusions  as  to  the  housing  requirements,  the 
best  method  of  providing  housing  and  the  approximate,  or  the 
allowable,  cost  thereof. 

(6)  Investigation  of  available  sites,  suitable  for  the  number  and  type 
of  houses  determined  upon  as  a  result  of  the  previous  study ;  this  involves 
consideration  of  the  relative  advantages  and  costs  of  development  of 
alternative  sites;  requiring  comparisons  between  costs  of  land,  of  prepa- 
ration of  the  sites,  and  of  building  complete  developments. 

(c)  Acquisition  of  site,  including  examination  of  title,  property  survey, 
preparation  of  map,  and  purchase. 

(d)  Topographical  surveys  and  detail  map;  preliminary  study  of  the 
town  plan  and  of  lot  subdivision;  studies  of  types  of  houses,  including 
development  of  preliminary  sketches,  floor  plans  and  elevations  and 
schedules  of  estimated  cost,  based  upon  local  data;  development  of 
preliminary  plans  for  lot  grading,  street  improvements  and  utilities, 
to  a  sufficient  extent  to  determine  the  general  character  and  approximate 
cost;  preparation  of  preliminary  budget,  based  upon  the  information 
and  data  developed  in  the  foregoing  studies. 

(c)  Review,  criticism  and  revision  of  the  preliminary  plans  and  esti- 
mates, leading  up  to  the  adoption  and  approval  of  definite  general  plans; 
estimates  of  the  cost  of  the  several  parts  of  the  work  and  the  prepara- 
tion of  a  definite  budget  of  cost. 

(/)  Preparation  of  detailed  construction  and  working  drawings,  to- 
gether with  construction  specifications;  filing  and  recording  plans  with 
proper  authorities;  arrangements  with  public  utility  companies. 

(g)  Award  of  contracts:  including  invitation  to  bidders, receiving  and 
comparison  of  bids,  award  and  execution  of  contracts. 

(h)  Construction  program, records  of  progress,  accounting,  and  super- 
vision and  inspection  of  work. 

(i)  Preparation  of  record  plans  and  drawings. 


358  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Necessity  for  Budget. — The  preparation  of  a  budget,  herein- 
before referred  to  in  discussing  procedure,  is  necessary;  both  as  a 
guide  and  criterion  to  follow,  in  working  out  the  plans  and  designs 
for  the  development,  and  also  as  a  means  of  financial  control  of 
construction.  Complete  data  must  be  at  hand  in  order  that 
those  in  executive  charge  shall  have  full  knowledge  as  to  the 
ultimate  cost  to  be  incurred,  and  as  to  the  expense  and  advisa- 
bility of  changes,  and  so  that  decisions  may  be  based  at  all  times 
upon  careful  analyses  of  facts. 

The  budget  should  be  based  upon  carefully  prepared  detailed 
estimates  of  the  cost  of  the  various  items  of  work,  and  should  be 
conveniently  summarized  by  grouping  into  main  items.  The 
preliminary  budget  will  necessarily  be  based  on  approximate 
information,  and,  therefore,  should  be  an  approximate  distribu- 
tion or  apportionment  of  a  certain  limiting  expenditure  per  lot  or 
per  house.  After  the  site  has  been  selected  and  the  definite 
plans  developed,  the  final  budget  may  be  prepared,  and  where 
the  cost  of  any  part  of  the  work  exceeds  the  amount  allotted 
to  it,  the  necessary  modifications  in  the  plans  can  then  be  made. 

Analysis  of  the  budget  from  time  to  time  will  indicate  the 
advisability  of  increasing  the  allotments  for  some  and  decreasing 
those  for  other  portions  of  the  work,  so  that  modifications  in  the 
apportionment  of  the  expenditure,  but  not  necessarily  in  the  sum 
total,  may  conveniently  be  made  from  time  to  time.  The  neces- 
sary degree  of  flexibility  must  be  provided  in  the  budget,  to  take 
care  of  variations  in  the  labor  and  materials  market  and  in 
business  conditions.  This  is  provided  for  by  allowing  a  contin- 
gent expense  of  from  10  to  15  per  cent. 

Suggested  Contents. — The  following  is  a  suggested  form  of  bud- 
get for  general  use  in  the  development  of  an  isolated  housing 
project.  Certain  items,  such  as  the  installation  of  water,  gas  or 
electric  service,  if  supplied  by  and  at  the  cost  of  a  public  utility 
company,  would  not  be  included,  except  to  the  extent  that  the 
builders  or  owners  may  pay  in  annual  service  charges: 

1.  Cost  of  Land. — Including  legal  services,  recording,  property  survey 
and  purchase  cost. 

2.  General  Site  Improvements. — Clearing,  general  site  grading,  etc. 

3.  Houses. — Listed  by  number  and  type. 

4.  Buildings  other  than  Houses. — Including  stores,  community  and 
public  buildings,  schools,  churches,  etc. 

5.  Lot  Improvements. — Including  grading,  seeding,  sodding  and  plant- 
ing; fences,  housewalks. 


ADMINISTRA  TION  ANDSl  TERVISION  OF  CONSTRUCTION    359 

G.  Street  Improvements. — Grading;  curbs  and  gutters;  pavements; 
sidewalks;  seeding,  sodding  and  planting  in  planting  strips  and  other 
open  spaces  on  streets;  catch  basins  and  inlets,  including  connections. 

7.  Parks  and  Playgrounds. — Boulevards  and  parkways,  including 
grading,  construction  and  adornment. 

8.  Water  Supply  and  Distribution. — Supply,  including  pumping  sta- 
tions, reservoirs,  supply  mains,  filter  plants,  etc.;  distribution  system. 

8a.  House  Services. — House  to  curb  and  curb  to  main,  may  be  sepa- 
rated  in  jurisdiction  and  chargeability. 

9.  Sewerage  and  Sewage  Disposal. — Collection  system;  outfalls; 
sewage  disposal  plant. 

9a.  House  Connections.— (Excluding  any  portion  included  in  house 
contract.) 

10.  Storm  Water  Drainage  System.— Collection  system,  main  drains, 
etc. 

10a.  House  Connections. — (Excluding  any  portion  included  in  house 
contract.) 

11.  Central  Heating  Plant. — Supply,  distribution  and  house  connec- 
tions. 

12.  Refuse  Disposal. — Incinerators  or  other  disposal  equipment. 

13.  Gas  Supply  and  Distribution. — Supply,  distribution  system  and 
house  connections. 

14.  Electric  Supply  and  Distribution.— -Supply ,  distribution  system 
and  house  connections. 

15.  Street  Lighting. — Supply,  circuits,  poles,  lamps,  etc. 

16.  General  Overhead. — Including  professional  services,  engineering, 
architectural  and  town  planning;  administrative,  financial  manage- 
ment and  general  expenses  during  organization  and  construction;  con- 
tractors' profit  and  all  charges  which  cannot  be  charged  to  any  of  the 
foregoing  items,  and  for  which  a  separate  charge  is  not  set  up. 

Where  the  work  is  done  directly  by  the  owner,  or  under  some 
of  the  forms  of  cost  plus  contracts,  it  may  be  desirable  to  set  up 
separate  charges  for  such  items  as  railroad  siding  and  yards, 
temporary  storage  yards,  and  other  general  items  of  construc- 
tion; otherwise,  where  not  so  charged,  these  costs  are  distributed 
among  the  various  items  of  the  budget. 

Construction  Policies. — An  early  decision  should  be  reached 
as  to  the  policy  to  be  followed  in  carrying  on  construction,  in 
order  that  the  plans  and  specifications  may  be  drawn  in  conform- 
ity therewith.  In  making  this  decision,  a  choice  must  first  be 
made  between  having  the  owner  do  the  work  directly,  or  by  force 
account,  utilizing  his  own  construction  organization,  purchasing 
ma! crials,  hiring  labor  and  buying  or  renting  plant;  and  having 


360  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

the  work  done  by  an  independent  organization  under  some  form 
of  construction  contract. 

Force  Account. — Construction  by  force  account  may  be  carried 
on  where  the  owner  t  maintains  a  permanent  construction 
department  with  competent  personnel,  or  where  an  engineering 
organization,  which  has  demonstrated  its  capacity  for  handling 
work  in  this  manner,  is  employed.  In  such  cases  the  owner 
assumes  all  of  the  risks  and  performs  all  of  the  functions  which 
would  be  divided  between  himself  and  the  contractor  on  a  con- 
tract job.  His  organization  will  therefore  have  to  be  practically 
as  large  as  the  combined  organizations  of  owner  and  contractor, 
and  under  ordinary  circumstances  no  advantage  can  be  obtained 
by  handling  the  work  in  this  manner,  sufficient  to  offset  the  super- 
ior organization,  experience  and  plant  of  a  reliable  and  experi- 
enced contractor. 

On  force  account  work,  no  contract  need  be  drawn  and  general 
specifications  need  not  be  so  formal,  but  if  satisfactory  work  is  to 
be  assured  the  plans  and  technical  specifications  should  be  fully 
as  complete  as  on  contract  work,  in  order  to  guide  and  instruct 
those  in  immediate  charge  of  the  various  portions  of  the  job. 
In  other  respects,  the  discussion  of  construction  problems  below 
will  apply  to  force  account  work,  with  due  allowance  for  the 
identity  of  owner  and  contractor. 

Contract. — If  the  work  is  to  be  done  by  contract,  various  forms 
of  contract  are  to  be  considered,  each  having  particular  advan- 
tages and  disadvantages.  The  essential  differences  between 
them  are  in  the  method  of  payment  and  in  the  degree  of  risk  and 
financial  responsibility  assumed  by  the  contractor.  The  princi- 
pal forms  and  their  chief  characteristics  are  as  follows: 

Lump  Sum  Contract. — In  this  form  of  contract  the  contractor  fur- 
nishes all  labor,  tools  and  materials  and  executes  the  work  complete; 
accepts  all  risks,  and  receives  in  payment  therefor  a  stipulated  lump 
sum  amount,  which  includes  all  of  his  costs  and  profits.  The  contract, 
drawings  and  specifications  must  be  in  unusually  complete  detail,  if 
this  form  of  contract  is  to  be  entered  into,  in  order  that  the  contractor 
may  be  fully  informed  and  estimate  the  cost  of  the  work,  and  to  obviate 
subsequent  controversies. 

Unit  Price  Contracts. — Similar  to  the  foregoing,  except  that  payment 
is  made  on  the  basis  of  prices  bid  per  unit  of  measurement,  which  may 
be  per  cubic  yard,  per  lineal  foot,  per  pound,  or  other  unit. 

Cost  Phis  a  Fee  Contract. — Under  this  form  the  contractor  executes 
the  work  in  conformity  with  the  plans  and  specifications,  charges  the 


ADMINISTRATION  AND  SUPERVISION  OF  ( 'ONSTRl  VTION    3G1 

full  cost  of  labor,  tools  and  materials  to  the  owner,  and  receives  in  pay- 
ment for  services  and  for  furnishing  supervision  and  plant  a  fixed  fee. 
Some  forms  of  contract  provide  for  a  sliding  scale  fee  which  increases  or 
decreases  in  inverse  proportion  to  the  cost  of  the  work,  within  certain 
stipulated  limits. 

Cost  Plus  a  Percentage  Contract. — This  is  somewhat  similar  to  the 
preceding  form,  except  that  the  contractor  receives  as  profit  and  com- 
pensation, a  stipulated  percentage  of  the  actual  cost  of  the  work.  The 
percentage  may  be  fixed  or  may  decrease  or  increase  inversely  with  the 
cost  of  the  work. 

The  chief  advantage  of  the  lump  sum  form  of  contract  is  that 
the  cost  of  the  work  included  is  definitely  fixed  by  the  contract 
price  agreed  upon.  With  a  stable  market  for  labor  and  materials 
and  for  work  of  relatively  small  amount,  the  fixed  price  form  of 
contract,  or  its.  companion  the  unit  price  contract,  has  many  ad- 
vantages; but  under  such  conditions  as  have  existed  during  and 
subsequent  to  the  Great  War,  there  has  been  a  general  disin- 
clination on  the  part  of  many  contracting  firms  to  enter  into  this 
form  of  contract.  There  are  many  elements,  such  as  the  cost 
and  supply  of  labor  and  materials,  car  shortage,  and  other  factors, 
which  are  beyond  control  and  which  constitute  an  abnormal 
degree  of  risk  and  possible  financial  loss.  Contractors  are, 
therefore,  unwilling  to  enter  into  this  form  of  contract,  unless 
a  very  large  allowance  is  made  in  the  bid  to  take  care  of  the  risk 
involved. 

Where  the  amount  of  the  contract  is  relatively  small,  the  ele- 
ment of  risk  on  account  of  the  foregoing  factors  is  not  so  material, 
and  it  is  therefore  often  possible,  even  though  the  greater  part 
of  the  work  is  executed  under  a  different  form  of  contract,  to  do 
certain  parts,  such  as  grading  or  the  installation  of  sewers  or  other 
utilities,  under  the  unit  price  contract.  And  it  is  further  the 
practice  of  contractors,  in  taking  large  contracts  on  a  cost-plus 
basis,  to  have  certain  parts  of  the  work  done  by  subcontractors 
at  lumpsum  or  unit  prices.  In  order  to  provide  for  this,  contracts 
on  a  cost-plus  basis  may  stipulate  that  certain  parts  of  the  work 
may  be,  upon  approval  of  the  owner,  sublet  by  the  general 
contractor. 

Assuming  that  the  contractor  is  fully  competent,  and  experi- 
enced and  that  lie  has  adequate  plant,  capital  and  organization, 
and  is  in  every  respect  dependable  and  reliable,  there  is,  under 
present  day  conditions,  a  general  feeling  that  the  cost-plus  form 


362  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

of  contract,  or  some  of  its  modifications,  will  give  better  results 
and  be  more  equitable  to  both  parties  than  the  lump  sum  or  unit 
price  contract.  In  this  form  of  contract,  the  owner  pays  the 
actual  cost  of  the  work,  plus  a  reasonable  profit  to  the  contractor 
for  his  services. 

The  cost-plus  form  of  contract  is  more  difficult  to  administer 
and  supervise  than  others,  and  the  success  of  the  undertaking 
will,  to  a  certain  extent,  be  dependent  upon  the  degree  of  confi- 
dence existing  between  the  parties.  While  the  contract,  in 
general,  provides  that  any  losses  or  costs,  due  to  the  negligence, 
incompetence  or  carelessness  of  the  contractor,  shall  be  charged 
to  and  be  borne  by  him,  it  is  difficult  to  clearly  establish  re- 
sponsibility when  controversies  arise,  and  it  is  therefore  extremely 
important  that  discretion  and  judgment  be  exercised  in  selecting 
the  contractor. 

Selection  of  Contractor. — The  selection  of  the  contractor,  or 
contractors,  deserves  much  more  consideration  than  is  often 
given.  While  a  definite  legal  and  binding  agreement  is  abso- 
lutely necessary  in  fairness  to  both  sides,  yet  the  relation  must  be 
premised  on  mutual  confidence  between  the  contracting  parties. 
Regardless  of  the  provisions  of  the  contract,  either  party  as  a 
matter  of  fact  may  be  subject  to  losses,  direct  or  indirect;  so  that 
the  highest  measure  of  protection  is  found  in  mutual  confidence 
between  those  entering  into  the  obligation.  Proposals  should 
be  entertained  only  from  contractors  who  can  furnish  full,  com- 
plete and  satisfactory  information  and  assurance  as  to  their 
experience  and  ability  to  perform  the  work  in  a  satisfactory  manner 
within  the  stipulated  time. 

This  will  involve  the  consideration  of  many  factors,  including : 
— the  extent,  experience  and  ability  of  the  contractor's  organiza- 
tion; the  working  capital  and  resources;  the  amount  and  character 
of  plant  and  equipment;  history  and  past  performances  as  to 
satisfactory  work  and  promptness  of  completion;  reputation, 
credit  and  character  of  the  contracting  company.  While  it  is 
in  general  good  business  policy  to  take  advantage  of  the  lowest 
price  offered,  the  question  of  price  must  be  considered  as  only 
one  of  the  items  and  factors  which  enter  into  the  most  advanta- 
geous arrangement,  and  frequently  it  is  one  of  the  lesser  items. 
Adequate  and  satisfactory  service  has  its  market  price,  and  the 
proposal  to  do  a  certain  amount  of  work  for  considerably  less 
than  the  price  which  is  reasonably  estimated  for  it,  unless  based 


ADMINISTRATION  AND  SUPERVISION  OF  CONSTRUCTION    363 

upon  superior  organization,  equipment  or  methods,  should  be 
viewed  with  suspicion. 

CONTRACT  AND  SPECIFICATIONS 

Purpose  of  Contract.  -The  purpose  of  the  contract  is  to  define 
clearly  the  scope  of  the  work  to  be  included,  and  the  responsibili- 
ties and  obligations  of  the  contracting  parties;  to  establish  the 
basis  of  payment,  and  to  define  the  extent  of  the  services  to  be 
furnished  and  the  work  to  be  done  by  the  contractor.  The 
contract  should  include  the  general  provisions,  or  articles  of 
agreement,  detail  or  technical  specifications,  the  contract  draw- 
ings and  plans,  and  the  supplementary  or  detailed  drawings  re- 
quired as  the  work  proceeds  and  the  terms  of  payment.  The 
conditions  and  provisions  of  the  contract  will  necessarily  vary 
with  its  form  and  basis,  and  must  further  be  adjusted  to  suit 
each  particular  locality  and  condition. 

General  Provisions.— Particular  consideration  should  be 
given  to  the  formulation  of  the  following  provisions  of  the  con- 
tract : 

(a)  A  clear  and  complete  statement  as  to  the  extent  and  character  of 
the  work,  which  forms  the  basis  of  the  contract. 

(b)  A  concise  statement  as  to  the  basis  of  payment  for  labor,  tools 
and  material,  and,  in  the  cost-plus  form  of  contract,  a  definition  of  the 
elements  included  in  the  contractor's  profit. 

(c)  Stipulation  as  to  time  of  completion  of  the  work  included  in  the 
contract,  with  provision  in  the  unit  price  or  lump  sum  contract  for  the 
payment  of  liquidated  damages  by  the  contractor,  in  the  event  of  fail- 
ure to  so  complete  within  the  stipulated  time. 

(d)  Bond,  of  surety  or  trust  company,  to  be  furnished  by  the  con- 
tractor, as  a  quarantee  of  faithful  performance  of  the  contract  and  dis- 
charge of  its  obligations. 

(e)  Definition  of  the  contractor's  responsibilities  and  obligations  with 
particular  regard  to  damage  to  persons  or  property,  and  the  observance 
of  laws  and  ordinances. 

(/)  Provision  for  the  doing  of  additional  or  extra  work,  not  specifically 
provided  for  in  the  contract  or  specifications. 

(g)  Alterations  or  modifications  in  the  contract  plans  or  specifications. 

(h)  Settlement  of  disputes;  should  provide  a  mutually  equitable 
method  of  settling  any  disputes  or  controversies  which  may  arise  in  the 
course  of  the  execution  of  the  work. 

(t)  Provision  for  cancellation  of  part  or  all  of  the  contract. 

U)  Terms  of  payment  to  the  contractor. 


364  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Specifications. — The  purpose  of  specifications  is  to  supplement 
the  contract  and  the  drawings,  by  giving  additional  information 
and  instructions  as  to  the  materials  to  be  furnished  and  the  man- 
ner in  which  the  work  is  to  be  done.  The  specifications  further 
serve  the  contractor  as  a  guide  to  the  requirements  of  the  work 
in  preparing  his  bid,  and  as  a  manual  of  instructions  to  those 
supervising  the  work. 

Specifications  can  most  conveniently  be  arranged  by  grouping 
the  general  requirements  as  to  labor  and  materials  and  workman- 
ship, which  are  common  to  a  number  of  items  of  work,  into  general 
specifications;  and  then  providing  detail  specifications  for  the 
various  parts  or  items  into  which  the  requirements  of  the  general 
specifications  are  read  and  which  contain,  in  addition,  the  provi- 
sions applying  to  the  particular  items  or  classes  of  work.  Where 
the  work  is  on  the  unit  price  basis,  particular  attention  must  be 
given  to  clearly  stating  the  work  included  in  the  price  bid  and 
the  basis  of  its  measurement  and  payment. 

SUPERVISION  OF  CONSTRUCTION 

The  extent  of  the  organization  to  supervise  construction  will 
depend  upon  the  extent  of  the  work  and  the  form  of  contract 
under  which  it  is  to  be  executed.  In  any  event,  the  force  must 
be  organized  to  give  general  supervision,  to  inspect  the  materials 
and  workmanship,  to  give  the  necessary  lines  and  grades  for  the 
construction,  and  to  keep  records  of  progress  and  for  certification 
of  payments.  Where  the  work  is  done  on  a  cost-plus  basis,  there 
must  further  be  provision  for  financial  control,  for  timekeeping 
and  checking  of  labor,  materials  and  bills,  and,  if  the  materials 
are  to  be  purchased  by  the  owner,  a  purchasing  department 
must  be  included. 

It  will  be  necessary  that  the  owner  have  sufficient  control  over 
the  work  to  insure  that  the  contract  is  carried  out  in  accordance 
with  its  terms  and  that  his  interests  are  fully  protected.  To  this 
end  it  is  necessary  and  advisable  to  supervise  the  construction 
with  the  same  degree  of  care  as  that  followed  in  the  preparation 
ot  the  plans  and  designs.  A  construction  superintendent  or 
manager  should  be  placed  in  immediate  charge  of  the  work,  and 
should  report  directly  to  the  executive  officer  in  general  charge. 

Construction  Problems. — Adequate  consideration  must  be 
given  to  a  number  of  problems  which  arise  in  construction,  both 


.  1  DM  /  A  / S 77,'.  1  TION  .  1  A  I)  SI  1'ER  VISION  OF  CONSTRUCTION    365 

to  see  that  suitable  provisions  for  their  solution  are  included  in 
the  contract  and  that  they  are  satisfactorily  carried  out  in  the 
field.     These  include  the  following: 

Program. — A  program  of  the  order  in  which  construction  is 
to  be  carried  out  should  be  devised  at  the  inception  of  the  work. 
This  will  provide  for  the  rate  and  sequence  of  the  various  opera- 
tions, enable  materials  to  be  ordered  and  distributed  without 
delay  and  confusion,  and  prevent  the  interference  of  one  part  of 
the  work  with  other  parts.  The  details  of  the  program  will 
depend  upon  the  size  of  the  undertaking,  and  the  extent  to  which 
plant  and  equipment  can  be  used  and  the  number  and  size  of 
labor  gangs  which  can  be  advantageously  and  economically 
employed.  Serious  delays,  loss  of  time  and  excessive  cost  may 
be  incurred  by  pushing  one  class  of  work  ahead,  to  the  detriment 
of  the  work  as  a  whole.  It  may  not  always  be  possible  to  adopt 
the  most  economical  plan  of  operation,  as  the  demand  for  speed 
may  be  greater  than  that  for  economy;  but  there  will  be,  in 
every  undertaking,  a  program  for  any  desired  rate  of  progress 
which  will  be  most  economical,  and  if  the  time  element  is  to  be 
materially  decreased,  it  can  only  be  accomplished  by  undergoing 
excessive  construction  cost. 

If  construction  economy  and  demand  for  early  completion  of 
the  houses  were  left  out  of  consideration,  the  most  desirable  plan 
would  be  to  first  execute  the  general  grading  of  the  site  and  com- 
plete /the  street  improvements  and  utilities  and  thereafter  build 
the  houses,  but  it  is  ordinarily  not  feasible  to  follow  this  plan, 
as  it  will  generally  require  two  working  seasons.  It  will  therefore 
usually  be  necessary  to  make  reasonable  provision  for  temporary 
construction  roads  and  to  proceed  with  the  construction  of 
houses,  after  the  rough  grading  has  been  done,  in  one  part  of  the 
tract,  while  street  improvements  and  utilities  are  carried  along 
in  another  part.  By  suitably  dividing  the  work  into  several 
sections,  a  continuous  use  of  various  sized  gangs  of  labor  and 
skilled  workmen  may  be  worked  out,  which  will  not  only  produce 
more  satisfactory  labor  conditions,  but  will  expedite  and  reduce 
the  cost  of  the  work. 

Yards  and  Delivery  of  Materials.— The  expense  of  handling 
materials,  in  unloading,  hauling,  storing  and  delivering  is  an 
important  item  in  the  cost  of  construction.  Where  the  size 
of  the  work  warrants,  it  will  be  advisable  to  extend  a  siding  to 
and  into  the  tract,  provided  the  cost  is  not  excessive  compared 


366  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

with  that  of  unloading  and  trucking  from  an  existing  siding. 
This  siding  should  be  extended  in  such  manner  as  to  enable  a 
storage  and  unloading  yard  to  be  developed  in  a  location  which 
will  be  convenient  for  the  delivery  of  materials  by  trucks  to  the 
various  parts  of  the  tract.  Certain  of  the  building  materials 
may  be  unloaded  from  the  cars  directly  into  trucks,  and  im- 
mediately distributed  on  the  work;  other  materials,  such  as 
cement,  lime,  etc.  must  be  placed  in  temporary  storage  buildings 
for  protection  from  the  elements,  and  hauled  to  the  work  as 
required. 

Sanitation. — Unless  the  project  is  a  small  one,  and  particu- 
larly when  the  site  is  remote  from  built-up  districts,  the  construc- 
tion of  contractors'  camps  will  be  required.  Such  camps  will 
be  of  temporary  construction  and  will  include  bunk  houses  for 
the  laborers,  quarters  for  the  superintendents,  office  men  and 
foremen,  a  commissary,  stables,  store  houses,  blacksmith  shop 
and  other  buildings  and  facilities  including  perhaps  a  first  aid 
station,  or  emergency  hospital. 

The  site  for  the  camp  and  the  location  of  the  various  buildings 
should  be  carefully  planned  with  respect  to  utility,  health,  sani- 
tation and  convenience. 

The  sanitation  of  the  contractor's  camp  surroundings  and  food 
supply  cannot  be  neglected  without  running  a  grave  risk  of 
having  infectious  diseases  break  out  and  spread.  This  will  not 
only  delay  the  work  but  may  create  a  prejudice  which  will  react 
against  the  success  of  the  project.  Attention  must  be  given  to 
the  housing  of  the  workmen,  requiring  that  the  quarters  shall  be 
livable  and  satisfactory  with  regard  to  ventilation,  cleanliness, 
and  space  allowed  per  man.  Satisfactory  sanitary  standards 
should  be  observed  in  regard  to  the  collection  and  disposal  of 
garbage  and  other  wastes,  and  adequate  sanitary  facilities  must 
be  provided.  Not  only  do  these  things  concern  the  immediate 
question  of  health,  but  they  also  exert  a  great  influence  upon  the 
spirit  and  efficiency  of  the  workmen. 

Fire  Protection. — Fire  protection  becomes  a  very  important 
feature  in  the  construction  of  a  large  number  of  houses  in  iso- 
lated districts  beyond  the  service  of  established  fire  departments. 
It  will  frequently  be  necessary  in  such  cases  to  provide  temporary 
means  of  fire  protection  until  the  installation  of  the  water  supply 
distribution  system  has  been  completed  and  permanent  fire 
fighting  equipment  has  been  provided  and  its  personnel  organ- 


ADMINISTRA TION  AND  SUPERVISION  OF  CONSTRUCTION    367 

ized.  Such  temporary  fire  protection  measures  will  include  the 
designation  of  one  of  the  construction  men  as  fire  chief,  with  a 
sufficient  force  of  men  readily  available  from  the  construction 
forces.  Fire  signals  for  giving  the  alarm  must  be  provided  and 
occasional  drills  held  in  order  to  familiarize  the  men  with  the 
facilities  and  equipment  and  the  methods  to  be  followed.  The 
equipment  should  consist  of  an  ample  number  of  barrels  of  water, 
with  buckets  suitably  marked  at  each  building,  and  a  supply  of 
chemical  fire;  extinguishers  located  at  specified  points.  A  good 
system  of  fire  prevention,  well  managed  and  directed,  and  a 
strictly  enforced  set  of  regulations,  with  systematic  inspection 
of  the  premises,  will  be  effective,  unless  conflagrations  are  started 
under  unusual  circumstances.  An  important  provision  in  the 
fire  regulations  should  pertain  to  the  location  and  isolation  of 
buildings  containing  inflammable  or  combustible  materials. 

Where  the  future  fire  protection  service  will  not  be  rendered 
as  an  extension  of  an  existing  municipal  service,  the  permanent 
fire  protection  service  should  be  planned  at  the  beginning  of 
construction,  and  any  equipment  which  can  afterwards  be  used 
as  part  of  the  permanent  equipment  should  be  promptly  pur- 
chased and  put  into  service.  In  any  case  where  the  size  of  the 
project  warrants,  chemical  fire  fighting  equipment  or  hydrants 
and  hose,  served  by  a  temporary  water  supply,  should  be 
provided. 

Temporary  Water  Supply. — The  permanent  water  supply 
distribution  system  should  be  planned  and  constructed,  so  as 
to  minimize  as  much  as  possible  the  extent  and  cost  of  temporary 
water  supplies  for  construction  and  fire  protection  purposes. 
Pending  the  installation  of  the  permanent  lines,  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  lay  temporary  water  lines,  which  will  usually  consist  of 
2-in.  screw  joint  pipe,  laid  directly  on  the  surface  of  the  ground, 
with  suitable  covering  at  road  crossings.  Proper  consideration 
must  be  given  to  the  source  of  this  supply,  and  provison  made  for 
the  constant  supervision  and  protection  of  its  sanitarj'  quality, 
if  necessary,  by  the  use  of  disinfection  or  filtration.  Careful  study 
should  also  be  given  to  the  layout  of  the  temporary  water  dis- 
tribution system,  so  that  it  may  conform  to  the  requirements  of 
fire  protection,  and  be  as  useful  as  possible  in  connection  with  the 
permanent  system. 

Construction  h'<i<i<ls. — The  extent  to  which  construction  roads 
must  be  built  will  depend  upon  the  size  of  the  project  and  the 


368  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

character  of  the  soil.  Where  possible,  temporary  construction 
roads  should  not  be  built  until  the  streets  have  been  rough- 
graded,  and  consideration  should  be  given  to  whether  economies 
may  not  be  realized  by  utilizing  the  graded  permanent  streets 
and  alleys  for  the  location  of  construction  roads. 

The  extensive  use  of  modern  heavy  trucks  has  made  the  re- 
quirements of  temporary  construction  roads  more  severe  than  was 
the  case  a  few  years  ago;  the  trucks  are  operated  at  a  much 
higher  cost  per  hour  than  in  the  case  of  horse  drawn  wagons. 
It  is  therefore  possible  and  necessary  to  provide  a  road  surface 
of  sufficient  wearing  and  bearing  qualities  to  permit  the  efficient 
operation  of  such  heavy  vehicles.  Cinders,  local  gravel  or 
broken  stone  can  be  used  for  surfacing;  heavy  planks  or  cordu- 
roy are  frequently  suitable  for  such  temporary  roads. 

Progress  and  Cost  Reports. — An  important  function  of  the  con- 
struction organization  is  to  compile  information  for  and  prepare 
reports  as  to  the  progress  and  cost  of  the  work.  A  progress 
chart,  covering  the  details  as  to  the  time  of  starting  and  comple- 
tion of  each  part  of  the  work,  is  of  great  value  in  the  management 
of  construction.  Unavoidable  delays  and  conditions  will  un- 
doubtedly cause  modifications  in  the  original  program  and  its 
enforcement  can  be  accomplished  only  by  periodic  reports  as 
to  the  progress  actually  made  on  each  part  of  the  work.  In  this 
way,  delays  affecting  any  part  of  the  work,  with  the  possibilities 
of  interference  and  confusion,  will  be  detected,  and  steps  may  be 
taken  for  the  rectification  of  conditions. 

Cost  accounting  and  cost  reports  will  constitute  one  of  the 
most  difficult  items  of  administration  of  construction. 
These  will  require  the  formulation  of  a  simple  but  effective 
method  of  obtaining  the  cost  of  labor  and  materials  and  their 
distribution  among  the  various  items  of  work.  The  accounting 
work  should  be  placed  in  direct  charge  of  an  official  whose  expe- 
rience and  qualifications  include  both  those  of  construction  ac- 
counting and  the  practical  direction  of  construction  work.  The 
ordinary  accounting  methods  are  entirely  unsuitable  for  the  pur- 
pose in  hand.  Where  the  work  is  being  done  under  a  cost-plus 
form  of  contract,  it  is  absolutely  necessary  that  those  in  executive 
charge  of  the  work  have  at  hand  at  all  times  the  actual  cost  of 
each  part  of  the  work,  for  the  reason  that  there  is  no  other  method 
of  determining  whether  or  not  the  work  is  being  carried  out  at  a 
reasonable   cost.     In   this  manner,  instances  of  leakage,  waste, 


ADMINISTRATION  AND  SUPERVISION  OF  CONSTRUCTION    369 

incompetence   or   improper   methods    of   construction   may   be 
detected  and  corrected. 

Record  Plans  and  Reports. — Record  plans  should  be  prepared 
of  the  development  as  actually  constructed.  These  will  include 
the  plans  relating  to  final  street  location-,  property  lines  and  ease- 
ments which  will  be  necessary;  descriptions  required  for  re- 
cording properties  and  casements,  and  in  dedicating  or  deeding 
streets  or  highways  to  the  municipality. 

These  record  maps  should  show,  in  plan  and  profile,  the  definite 
location  of  the  street  lines,  and  the  location  of  monuments  and 
necessary  information  and  should  further  show  the  established 
grade  lines.  Record  maps  also  show  the  property  subdivision, 
block  and  lot  records  and  house  locations. 

Record  plans  of  the  street  improvements,  utility  systems  and 
house  services  and  connections  should  be  prepare*  1  which  will 
show  location,  character  and  size,  in  sufficient  detail  so  that  the 
necessary  information  will  be  readily  available  when  required  in 
operation. 


24 


CHAPTER  XIII 

MANAGEMENT  OF  INDUSTRIAL  TOWNS 

Types   of   Towns — Isolated   Industrial  Towns — Suburban 
Industrial  Towns 

TYPES  OF  TOWNS 

Company-controlled  Towns. — The  keynote  of  this  chapter 
results  from  the  firm  conviction  that  permanently  company- 
owned  and  exclusively  company-controlled  towns  are  theoret- 
ically undesirable  civic  units  in  the  United  States;  unless 
situation,  isolation  and  character  of  industry  make  such  advis- 
able for  municipal  purposes.*  They  are  undesirable,  if  avoidable, 
because  they  are  out  of  place  in  a  country,  whose  government 
is  one  "of  the  people,  by  the  people,  for  the  people".  Should 
one  insist  upon  a  practical  demonstration  of  this  truth,  it  can 
be  found  in  the  historic  dismal  failures  of  several  so-called 
model  towns — superior  as  to  houses,  sanitation,  utilities,  and 
similar  physical  requirements — but  in  which  the  management 
has  been  falsely  founded  upon  paternalistic  rather  than  demo- 
cratic principles.  Residents  of  such  company  towns  frequently 
refer  to  the  irksome  and  irritating  relationships  that  exist,  in 
spite  of  all  efforts  that  may  be  made  to  make  the  community 
conditions  happy  and  agreeable. 

The  difficulties  and  dangers  which  characterize  a  company- 
controlled  community  should  be  thoroughly  appreciated  at  the 
outset  by  the  promoters  of  an  industrial  enterprise,  which  in- 
volves the  provision  for  housing  by  the  company,  at  least  for 
a  time.  A  full  knowledge  of  the  responsibilities  that  arise  in 
connection  with  the  management  of  a  town  may  vitally  affect 
the  formulation  of  a  program  of  industrial  expansion.  Often  it 
is  too  late  to  change  the  policy  after  the  town  or  the  plant  has 
been  constructed.  Every  effort  should  therefore  be  made  to 
solve  the  industrial  and  the  town  problems  together,  and,  if 
possible,  in  such  a  manner  as  to  make  a  company-controlled 
community  unnecessary  or  temporary.     Nevertheless,  there  are 

370 


MANAGEMENT  OF  INDUSTRIAL  TOWNS  371 

many  situations  where  isolated  company  (owns  are  the  only 
solution. 

Isolated  Company  Towns. — The  method  of  administration 
applicable  to  an  industrial  town  is  greatly  affected  by  its  location. 

Some  industrial  towns  must  necessarily  be  isolated  from  existing 
communities — as,  for  example,  many  mining  towns.    Theisolal  ion 

combined  with  such  factors  as  high  cost  of  construction,  non- 
fertility  of  soil,  short  life  of  industry  and  absence  of  diversified 
industries,  may  make  the  houses  non-saleable.  In  other  words, 
it  may  be  unavoidable  and,  therefore,  desirable  that  the  com- 
pany maintain  the  ownership  of  all  the  houses,  and  consequently 
exercise  control  over  the  town  affairs.  In  fact,  such  a  town, 
including  streets,  utilities,  houses  and  public  buildings,  is  private 
property.  Some  suggestions  as  to  the  management  of  such  a 
town,  so  as  to  avoid,  so  far  as  possible,  all  the  disadvantages 
inherent  in  this  condition,  will  be  outlined  later. 

Suburban  Industrial  Towns. — Many  industrial  towns,  how- 
ever, may  be  built  adjacent  to  or  in  close  proximity  to  established 
communities.  Because  of  the  residential  value  of  the  property, 
the  possibility  of  annexation  to  the  larger  city,  and  the  variety  of 
industries  available  for  employment,  the  houses  may  be  readily 
saleable.  Thus  in  due  time,  the  entire  management  of  the  town 
will  pass  out  of  the  hands  of  the  industry  and  into  the  control 
of  the  community.  The  desirability  of  this  situation,  as  com- 
pared with  that  previously  referred  to,  is  apparent.  The  selec- 
tion of  such  a  location,  when  ever  possible,  cannot  be  too  strongly 
recommended. 

It  should  be  pointed  out,  however,  that  even  in  these  condi- 
tions there  is  a  transition  era,  during  which  the  company  must 
manage  the  town  affairs,  in  order  to  provide  adequate  facilities 
and  progressive  improvements,  which  lack  of  funds  and  unwise 
planning  frequently  prevent  in  new  growing  communities. 
How  this  can  be  most  judiciously  carried  out  and  how  the  trans- 
fer can  be  most  speedily  and  satisfactorily  accomplished  is  the 
problem  to  the  solution  of  which  this  discussion  will  be  addressed. 

Too  much  stress  cannot  be  placed  upon  the  importance  of 
good  management  on  the  part  of  the  company  during  such  a 
period  of  transition.  The  saleability  of  the  houses  and  success 
of  the  whole  program  are  affected  by  it.  For  example,  if.  through 
negligent  public  health  administration,  epidemics  break  out;  if, 
through  faulty  upkeep,  the  houses  deteriorate;  if,  through  inade- 


372  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

quate  fire  fighting  facilities  and  organization,  serious  conflagra- 
tions break  out;  if,  through  lack  of  proper  policing,  houses  of 
bad  repute  become  established  or  lawlessness  become  rampant; 
if,  through  lack  of  supervision,  store  prices  become  extortionate; 
if,  through  lack  of  medical  attention,  high  mortality  prevails; — if 
any  one  or  all  of  these  conditions  arise  through  inefficient  or 
negligent  company  administration — the  sale  of  the  houses  will 
be  greatly  delayed,  and  the  entire  working  out  of  desirable  plans 
and  policies  may  be  retarded,  if  not  entirely  frustrated. 

We  may,  therefore,  conclude  that  the  ideal  industrial  com- 
munity is  one  of  permanent  character,  in  localities  where  values 
will  continue  relatively  stable;  one  which  has  been  planned 
along  broad  and  comprehensive  lines,  with  well  directed  initial 
development,  but  one  in  which  it  is  possible  for  either  the  in- 
dustry or  the  individual  to  build  and  own  houses  subject  to 
proper  restrictions  and  regulations.  Such  happy  results  will 
eliminate  the  paternalistic  atmosphere  of  company  control  and 
at  the  same  time  prevent  the  haphazard  and  undesirable  type 
of  development  that  results  from  miscellaneous  individual 
operations. 

ISOLATED  INDUSTRIAL  TOWNS 

Usually  Company  Towns. — Isolated  industrial  towns  usually 
begin  as,  and  have  a  tendency  to  remain  company-controlled 
towns.  This  is  neither  universally  nor  necessarily  true,  as  ex- 
amples could  be  cited  where  such  towns,  originally  established  by 
a  single  enterprise,  have  nevertheless  developed  community- 
control,  with  cooperative  or  copartnership  management,  or 
under  the  more  usual  forms  of  municipal  organization. 

Commonly,  however,  isolated  industrial  communities  remain 
company-controlled,  most  frequently  because  of  necessity  aris- 
ing out  of  the  non-saleability  of  the  houses;  but  occasionally, 
through  choice  of  the  industrial  management.  Such  necessity 
is  a  real  and  valid  reason  for  company  control.  Conditions  may 
readily  be  such  that  the  workman  would  be  unwise,  to  say  the 
least,  to  invest  his  savings  in  a  home,  the  usefulness  of  which  to 
his  family  is  wholly  dependent  upon  his  holding  a  particular  job. 
Company  ownership  of  houses  and  all  other  facilities  leads  almost 
unavoidably  to  company  management  of  the  town.  But  suffi- 
cient experience  has  now  been  obtained  in  such  questions  to 
justify  the  conclusion  that  no  broad  minded  industrial  leader 


MANAGEMENT  OF  INDUSTRIAL  TOWNS  373 

should  any  longer  voluntarily  choose  permanent  company  con- 
trol of  a  housing  development,  if  it  were  possible  to  hope  for 
anything  like  equal  results  under  any  other  form  of  management. 

Supposed  Advantages. — Formerly  it  was  considered  a  certain 
advantage  for  industries  to  control  the  homes  of  their  workers. 
It  was  thought  that  this  was  the  only  sure  way  to  have  adequate 
housing;  that  such  control  of  houses  was  helpful  in  case  of  labor 
troubles,  giving  the  company  an  added  weapon  in  the  threat 
of  eviction,  and  permitting  shelter  to  be  furnished  for  those  will- 
ing to  work;  that  in  case  of  shortage  of  work  or  temporary  shut- 
down of  the  plant,  idle  workers  would  not  be  pressed  for  rents 
by  avaricious  landlords;  that  town  sanitation,  cleanliness,  secure 
]X)licing,  etc.  could  be  more  expeditiously  and  efficiently  handled 
by  the  company. 

But  the  old,  brutal  methods,  both  of  strikers  and  of  their 
opponents,  have  gone  by  the  board,  to  be  succeeded  by  a  new 
spirit  of  discussion  and  conciliation.  And  although  it  is  true 
that  democracy  and  efficiency  do  not  always  go  hand  in  hand, 
recent  history  has  proved  that  democracy,  even  though  less 
efficient,  is  a  safer  and  wiser  aim  than  the  most  efficient  autoc- 
racy. Old  considerations,  therefore,  no  longer  apply.  And, 
while  it  is  no  doubt  easier  for  the  company  to  maintain  its  control 
of  the  management  of  the  town,  than  to  attempt  the  difficult 
task  of  developing  in  the  people  the  capacity  and  the  organization 
for  self-government,  nevertheless  the  easiest  way  may  prove  the 
most  costly  way  in  the  long  run,  and,  therefore,  the  effort  toward 
democracy  is  worth  trying  wherever  success  is  possible.  Indus- 
try is  striving  today  to  evolve  a  new  industrial  democracy,  and 
no  better  preparation  can  be  had  for  the  development  of  methods 
of  organization  and  for  the  assumption  of  new  responsibilities 
than  the  control  by  the  worker  of  his  own  home  and  his  own 
community. 

Unique  Conditions.- — in  the  cases  where  companj^  ownership 
and  control  in  towns  detached  from  other  communities  are  un- 
avoidable, however,  the  industrial  leaders,  upon  whom  devolves 
the  duty  of  town  management,  must  have  all  their  conceptions 
and  plans  influenced  by  the  fact  that  conditions  are  entirely 
different  from  those  prevailing  in  the  average  small  independent 
American  city.  Many  schemes  which  may  work  out  in  the  latter 
may  fail  in  the  former,  largely  as  a  result  of  certain  of  these 
differences;  among  which  special  mention  may  be  made  of  uni- 


374  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

versal  tenantry,  absence  of  competition  between  landlords  and 
identity  of  employer  and  landlord. 

Universal  Tenantry. — Company  control  means  that  all  of  the 
people  are  tenants  or  boarders,  and  all  the  stability,  responsibility 
and  balance  that  germinate  and  flourish  in  a  community  of  home 
owners  are  absent.  There  is  a  certain  magic  in  home-owning. 
The  individual  who  secures  a  deed  to  a  small  plot  of  ground  and  a 
little  home  thereon  has  his  economic  and  political  theories 
profoundly  altered,  and  no  community  can  afford  to  overlook 
the  difference  between  such  a  citizen  and  the  one  who  rents  or 
boards,  and  whose  range  for  theorizing  without  affecting  his 
immediate  interests  is  correspondingly  greater. 

One  Landlord. — Universal  tenantry  creates  unique  reactions, 
and  these  are  seriously  complicated  and  accentuated  in  the  com- 
pany town  by  the  fact  that  all  the  tenants  have  the  same  landlord. 
Monoply  of  any  necessity  engenders  distrust  of  those  dependent 
upon  the  monopolist,  and  absence  of  competition  between  land- 
lords removes  one  of  the  healthiest  characteristics  of  normal  in- 
dependent communities. 

Frequently  there  is  no  valid  reason  for  distrust,  but  such  feelings 
are  not  always  dependent  upon  reason  for  their  development. 
No  matter  how  equitable  the  company  may  be  in  its  dealings, 
therefore,  it  cannot  afford,  in  formulating  its  policies,  to  neglect 
the  influence  of  its  sole  landlordism.  And  at  the  same  time,  it 
must  guard  against  the  mistake  of  going  to  the  extreme  of  an 
over-generous  attitude,  which  may  wreck  the  whole  development 
upon  the  rock  of  paternalism. 

Identity  of  Landlord  and  Employer. — If  to  these  reactions  are 
added  those  that  result  from  the  fact  that  the  monopolistic 
landlord  is  likewise  the  universal  employer,  then  indeed  can  one 
realize  the  multitude  of  complexities  that  differentiate  the  prob- 
lems of  management  in  a  company  town  from  those  of  normal 
communities.  These  unique  conditions  must  necessarily  react 
upon  the  system  of  government  in  all  of  its  manifestations  and 
no  program  of  management  can  have  even  a  chance  of  success 
unless  it  takes  them  fully  into  account  at  all  times. 

Principles  of  Town  Management. — If,  then,  permament  com- 
pany control  of  towns  is  not  desirable,  but  if  under  certain  con- 
ditions such  control  is  necessary,  it  becomes  important  to 
organize  the  management  so  that  it  will  approximate  as  closely 
as   may   be,    the  conditions  found  in  independent    towns.     In 


MANAGEMENT  OF  INDUSTRIAL   TOWNS  375 

solving  this  problem,  two  principles  will  be  of  greatest  help: 
viz.,  that  tin'  home  should  be  separated  from  the  plant,  and  that 
the  town  should  be,  as  nearly  as  possible,  self-supporting. 

Separate  from  Plant. — One  basic  principle  to  be  adhered  to  is 
to  make  the  town  management  as  independent  and  separate 
from  plant  control  as  is  possible.  A  step  in  this  direction  may 
be  achieved  by  locating  the  town  a  reasonable  distance  away 
from  the  industry,  as  discussed  in  Chap.  III.  Physical  separa- 
tion makes  more  readily  possible  the  separate  organization  of 
the  management,  as  well  as  of  the  financing  and  construction 
of  the  town.  Subsidiary  land  companies  or  housing  organiza- 
tions are  often  a  means  of  keeping  town  and  plant  management 
separate.  Of  course,  when  the  proprietorship  is  traced  to  the 
highest  officers  in  authority,  the  controlling  interests  will  be 
found  identical;  but  in  the  current  every  day  affairs  this  identity 
need  not  be  obnoxiously  manifest. 

Certain  financial  transactions,  such  as  the  payment  of  house 
rent,  or  the  payment  of  store  bills  or  boarding  house  obligations, 
etc.  are  often  deducted  from  the  pay  envelope  at  the  plant 
cashier's  office.  This  is  commonly  justified  as  a  measure  of 
security  and  efficiency,  but  it  does  intensify  the  atmosphere  of 
company  control.  It  might  appear  like  "straining  at  a  gnat"; 
and  yet  it  is  a  fact  that  the  actual  receipt  by  the  employee  of  his 
full  earnings,  even  though  they  may  remain  in  his  possession  but 
a  short  period  before  disbursements  are  made,  carries  with  it  a 
certain  feeling  of  independence  and  satisfaction.  It  likewise 
carries  with  it  a  certain  responsibility  on  the  part  of  the  wage 
earner  because  it  indicates  that  trust  is  placed  in  him;  whereas 
the  opposite  course  expresses  a  lack  of  confidence  that  is  inimical 
to  good  relations. 

It  is  also  contrary  to  the  American  spirit  of  independence  to 
relate  too  closely  the  conduct  of  the  worker  in  the  home  and  his 
standing  at  the  mill,  so  that  one  affects  the  other.  There  are 
much  better  ways  of  educating  the  workman  who  does  not  keep 
his  premises  clean,  than  by  threatening  t o  have  him  discharged 
from  his  job;  just  as  there  are  better  ways  of  rewarding  civic  pride 
than  by  promotion  at  the  plant.  It  is  easy  to  see  how  readily 
these  and  similar  undesirable  interactions  take  place  when  town 
and  plant  management  are  too  closely  merged. 

Ccrt.-iin  industrial  leaders,  in  an  effort  to  promote  the  welfare 
of  their  employees,  have  developed  elaborate  systems  of  keeping 


376  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

in  close  touch  with  their  personal  and  home  affairs.  This,  of 
course,  is  an  attempt  to  develop  the  old-fashioned  intimacy  of 
contact  between  the  owner  and  craftsmen.  Modern  industry, 
however,  with  its  complexity  and  magnitude,  makes  this  intim- 
acy well  nigh  impossible.  To  foster  it  artifically  develops  per- 
haps the  husk,  but  not  the  heart.  For  example,  if  nurses 
visit  the  homes  of  absent  workmen  to  learn  the  cause  of  ab- 
sence— sickness  or  otherwise — it  should  be  made  apparent 
that  this  comes  from  a  real  interest  and  desire  to  be  of  help 
and  not  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining  truancy  reports. 

Such  illustrations  of  keeping  town  and  plant  separate  will  be 
enlarged  later  in  outlining  the  divisional  functions  of  the  depart- 
ment of  town  management. 

Self-Supporting. — Insofar  as  it  is  humanly  possible  the  town 
should  be  made  self-supporting.  It  is  inimical  to  the  best  inter- 
ests of  both  the  company  and  the  workman  to  have  the  workman 
receive  something  for  nothing.  In  Chap.  II  attention  has 
been  called  to  a  marginal  deficit  that  appears  to  prevail  today 
with  respect  to  supporting  houses  for  common  labor  from 
rentals  alone.  This  anomalous  condition  is  no  doubt  transitory, 
due  to  mal-adjustment,  subsequent  to  the  Great  War.  Higher 
wages  or  lower  building  costs  will  cause  it  to  vanish  in  time.  It 
in  no  way  disproves  the  contention  that  company-controlled 
towns,  like  other  self-respecting  communities  in  the  United  States, 
should  be  self-supporting. 

A  certain  industrial  town  was  for  a  time  largely  supported 
from  the  coffers  of  the  company.  Such  gratuities  as  free  house 
rent,  free  furniture,  free  light  and  heat,  free  telephone  service, 
free  repairs,  free  recreation,  etc.  were  furnished  to  the  em- 
ployees, the  quantity  and  character  of  these  perquisites  being 
dependent  upon  the  position  of  the  individual  with  the  company. 
It  then  became  necessary,  in  order  to  distribute  these  gratuities 
equitably,  to  prepare  a  list  of  regulations,  classifying  the  em- 
ployees, not  only  with  respect  to  employment  and  wages,  but 
also  with  respect  to  furniture,  recreation,  utility  service  and 
home  life,  and  adopting  standards  for  each  classification. 

The  difficulties  of  attempting  to  standardize  homes  are  ap- 
parent. One  might  as  well  attempt  to  standardize  noses.  The 
plan  has  always  been  a  failure.  Instead  of  producing  content- 
ment, it  arouses  dissatisfaction.  It  is  expensive  because  people 
often  request  service,  because  it  is  free,  in  excess  of  their  needs. 


MANAGEMENT  OF    INDUSTRIAL   TOWNS  377 

The  free-for-all  plan  has  Largely  been  abolished  and  the  pay-for 
what-you-get  system  substituted,  an  adjustment  being  made 
in  salaries  and  wages  and  the  town  made  sell-supporting.  This 
would  seem  to  have  been  merely  a  bookkeeping  transaction;  in 
reality  it  was  much  more, — it  was  substituting  independence  for 
paternalism. 

Functions  of  Town  Management. — In  outlining  the  various 
functions  of  town  management  in  a  company-controlled  indus- 
trial town,  the  two  previously  mentioned  basic  principles  should 
be  adhered  to  as  far  as  possible, — namely,  town  management 
should  be  separate  from  plant  management,  and  the  town  should 
be  self-supporting. 

Public  Services. — The  department  of  town  management  should 
include,  in  addition  to  management  of  houses,  such  public  serv- 
ices as  operation  and  maintenance  of  water  supply  and  sewerage; 
supervision  of  garbage  and  waste  removal;  upkeep  of  trails,  roads 
and  pavements;  supervision  over  domestic  gas  and  electrical 
service;  care  of  public  grounds  and  parks;  and  public  health  and 
police  administration.  Consideration  has  been  given  to  the 
management  of  the  various  public  utilities  in  the  several  chapters 
relating  to  them.  Reference  is  again  made  to  them  principally 
for  the  purpose  of  calling  attention  to  certain  additional  points 
not  there  referred  to. 

It  goes  without  saying  that  the  design  and  construction  of  a 
water  system  for  a  town  of  almost  any  size  should  be  placed  in 
the  hands  of  experts  trained  along  these  lines.  There  is  like- 
wise great  advantage  in  having  the  operation  of  the  water  sys- 
tem placed  under  the  supervision  of  a  trained  organization  con- 
taining engineers,  chemists  and  bacteriologists.  For  towns  too 
small  to  justify  the  maintenance  of  a  complete  organization  of 
this  kind  for  the  purpose,  many  companies  now  render  such  serv- 
ices under  a  part  time  arrangement,  whereby  the  best  technical 
advice  can  be  obtained  at  a  reasonable  cost.  Sewerage  systems 
and  sewage  disposal  plants,  if  correctly  designed  and  constructed, 
may  require  less  technical  supervision  than  do  water  supplies, 
but  thse  also  should  have  skilled  direction,  in  order  to  promote 
efficiency  and  economy. 

Garbage  and  waste  removal  and  disposal  require  close,  system- 
atic watching  and  inspection,  rather  than  technical  supervision; 
if  the  town  is  to  be  maintained  in  a  wholesome  condition.  Effi- 
cient results  can  be  obtained  only  by  enlisting  the  support  of 


378  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

every  member  of  the  community.  A  campaign  of  education 
locally  adapted  to  the  peculiarities  of  the  people  concerned, 
should  therefore  be  promoted.  Motion  pictures  and  circular 
notices,  illustrating  how  flies  produce  diseases;  clean-up  cam- 
paigns; the  enlistment  of  the  interest  of  school  children  and  Boy 
Scouts;  the  offering  of  prizes  for  cleanest  premises  and  best 
gardens, — are  all  methods  which  will  help  make  and  keep  the 
town  clean  at  not  too  great  a  cost. 

The  economical  upkeep  of  roads  and  pavements  requires 
first,  good  design;  second,  thorough  construction;  and  finally 
steady,  consistent  repairs,  rather  than  sporadic  splurges.  A 
carefully  planned  program  of  maintenance,  based  upon  the  old- 
fashioned  theory  that  "a  stitch  in  time  saves  nine",  is  the  sound- 
est policy  to  follow. 

In  company-controlled  towns,  where  service  is  not  supplied 
by  a  public  utility  company,  the  operation  and  maintenance  of 
the  gas  and  electrical  services  may  often  be  placed  to  advantage 
in  the  hands  of  the  plant  engineers.  Large  industrial  plants 
usually  include  highly  developed  electrical  and  mechanical  engi- 
neering departments  which  can  readily  supply  necessary  men  to 
keep  the  gas  and  electrical  systems  of  the  townsite  in  good  order. 
It  is  by  far  the  best  policy  to  have  all  gas  and  electrical  service, 
as  well  as  water,  on  a  meter  basis. 

Care  of  public  parks  and  grounds  is  an  important  part  of  town 
management.  These  should  be  made  self-supporting  insofar 
as  possible.  In  independent  towns,  the  taxes  cause  people  to 
feel  that  they  are  supporters  of  the  park  system.  In  company- 
controlled  towns,  wherein  all  the  property  is  owned  by  the  com- 
pany, some  process  should  be  substituted  whereby  the  people 
can  become  at  least  part-supporters  of  their  parks.  Often 
profits  from  company  stores  have  gone  into  park  improvements. 
In  other  places,  revenue  from  athletic  contests,  rental  from  con- 
cessionaires, collections  made  at  band  concerts,  etc.,  may  be  de- 
voted to  upkeep  of  parks  and  public  grounds.  It  is  the  principle 
of  self-suppport,  rather  than  the  actual  saving  involved,  that  is 
the  important  issue. 

Public  health  administration  is  an  important  function  of  town 
management.  Unless  the  town  manager  chances  to  be  a  trained 
sanitarian,  all  public  health  measures  may  with  advantage  ema- 
nate from  the  medical  department  of  the  company.  There  are, 
however,  agencies  equipped  to  give  special  and  technical  service 


MANAGEMENT  OF  INDUSTRIAL  TOWNS  379 

in  many  of  the  functions  of  public  health  service  as  a  part  time 
basis,  similar  to  that  mentioned  for  utility  supervision,  so  that 
a  high  grade  of  sanitary  service  may  be  made  available  at 
reasonable  cost  to  small  towns. 

It  should  be  possible  to  conduct  public  health  administration, 
and  in  fact  all  of  the  public  services  enumerated  above,  much  more 
efficiently  and  expeditiously  in  company-controlled  towns  than 
in  independent  communities.  While;  educational  measures  should 
and  can  almost  always  be  used,  arbitrary  and  authoritative 
measures  must  be  adopted  in  a  crisis,  and  such  measures  can  be 
enforced  with  less  delay  in  company  towns  than  in  independent 
communities. 

Housing. — The  duties  of  the  department  of  town  management 
should  include  the  maintenance,  upkeep  and  assignment  of  all 
houses,  and  of  buildings  used  for  public  purposes. 

The  repair  and  upkeep  of  a  large  group  of  company  houses  is  a 
trying  and  expensive  task.  The  town  management  department 
should  maintain  a  squad  of  repair  men,  consisting  of  painters, 
carpenters,  masons  and  plumbers,  entirely  separate  from  the 
plant  organization.  The  number  of  each  will  depend  upon  the 
number  of  houses,  the  type  and  character  of  occupants.  Im- 
provements should  be  undertaken  in  a  systematic  manner.  In 
some  cases  the  cost  of  repairs  has  been  minimized  by  agreeing  to 
return  a  certain  proportion  of  the  rent,  providing  repairs  were 
kept  below  a  specified  cost.  In  certain  company  towns  the  cost 
of  certain  repairs  has  been  divided  between  tenants  and  company. 
For  example,  in  painting,  the  company  may  furnish  the  material, 
providing  the  tenant  furnishes  the  labor.  In  the  upkeep  of 
houses,  as  in  the  maintenance  of  the  roads  and  pavements, 
it  is  decidedly  the  better  policy  to  keep  consistently  and  steadily 
up  with  the  repairs,  rather  than  permit  the  property  to  become  in  a 
run-down  condition,  with  the  intention  of  bringing  it  up  to 
par  at  one  time. 

Some  system  of  house  inspection  must  be  inaugurated,  in 
order  to  be  conversant  with  conditions  in  the  interior.  This 
must  be  handled  tactfully,  varying  with  the  character  of  the 
tenants.  The  sanctity  of  the  home  must  be  respected.  It 
would  be  quite  impossible  to  inaugurate  a  system  of  house  in- 
spection among  the  Anglo-Saxon  mountaineers  of  a  Kentucky 
mining  camp,  because  of  their  cherished  traditions  of  independ- 
ence; whereas,  in  other  mining  camps  occupied  by  Negroes  and 


380  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

Slavs,  races  more  or  less  accustomed  to  paternalism,  no  such 
difficulties  are  likely  to  be  encountered.  Among  unskilled  labor- 
ers, if  prizes  are  offered  to  the  wives  for  best  kept  homes,  in- 
spections can  be  made  for  the  purpose  of  awarding  prizes  without 
danger  of  objection  on  the  ground  of  intrusion. 

All  the  difficulties  involved  in  the  upkeep  and  repair  of  houses 
are  trivial  compared  with  the  trials  of  awarding  quarters,  parti- 
cularly if  there  is  a  house  shortage — an  almost  proverbial 
condition  in  most  industrial  towns.  The  assignment  of  houses 
should  be  in  accordance  with  strict  regulations.  Often  this  will 
work  hardships,  but  in  the  long  run  it  will  be  better.  The 
order  of  assigning  houses  should  follow  a  definite  plan,  the  ele- 
ments entering  into  which  may  well  be  length  of  service,  classifi- 
cation of  duties  and  salaries.  If  the  industry  is  organized  with 
distinct  classifications,  in  which  salary  or  wage  is  generally 
reflected,  the  element  of  pay  may  be  disregarded  in  the  assign- 
ment of  houses,  a  very  desirable  elimination. 

Commercial  Enterprises. — The  department  of  town  manage- 
ment should  also  supervise  all  the  commercial  enterprises  in  the 
town.  Company  stores  have  earned  a  bad  name  and  in  some 
states  they  have  been  prohibited.  They  still  suffer  a  handicap 
from  this  reputation,  although  in  many  modern  company  stores 
the  prices  are  very  reasonable  and  character  of  merchandise 
satisfactory,  the  standards  being  even  higher  than  those  which 
obtain  in  the  neighborhood.  Certain  companies  have  gone  so 
far  as  to  run  their  stores  at  a  loss.  This  is  not  fair  to  com- 
peting stores  in  the  vicinity,  and  is  simply  another  example  of 
apparently  giving  something  for  nothing.  It  would  be  better  to 
make  store  prices  normal,  making  up  the  difference  in  the  wage 
scale,  and  to  use  the  earnings  of  the  store  to  provide  additional 
conveniences  in  the  town,  in  the  selection  of  which  the  people 
might  have  some  voice. 

In  other  words,  company  towns  should  be  managed,  so  that 
all  the  earnings  and  gratuities  should  be  definitely  and  clearly 
expressed  in  the  daily  wage.  To  give  a  smaller  wage,  and  then 
add  a  number  of  perquisites,  does  not  really  alter  the  fundamental 
financial  considerations,  but  it  does  add  infinitely  to  the  confu- 
sion of  the  entire  plan.  It  makes  the  recipient  uncertain  of  his 
status.  It  does  not  furnish  a  clear-cut  basis  for  comparison  with 
outside  communities.  It  involves  the  bookkeeping  and  often 
deludes  both  the  employer  and  employee. 


MANAGEMENT  OF  INDUSTRIAL    TOWNS  381 

If  credit  is  extended  in  a  company  store,  the  collect  ions  should 
noi  be  made  from  the  pay  envelope.  Tins,  as  previously  slated, 
emphasizes  company  domination  over  the  private  affairs  of  the 
employee.  If  independent  stores  can  extend  credil  without  such 
guarantee,  why  cannot  company  stores  do  it?  The  undesirable 
effect  upon  the  spirits  of  the  residents  more  than  outweighs  the 
so-called  efficiency  of  the  system.  However,  cash  payments 
largely  prevail  in  merchandising,  and  it  would  be  better  that 
company  stores  should  be  no  exception. 

It  is  perhaps  better,  if  possible,  to  have  the  stores  operated  on 
an  independent  basis.  Even  though  the  company  owns  all  the 
houses,  it  can  sublet  the  store  privilege  to  an  outside  agency. 
The  store  operations  of  a  large  corporation  are  apt  to  be  less 
efficient  than  those  of  a  company  operated  for  retail  merchandis- 
ing, as  they  often  fall  to  the  purchasing  department,  which  is 
organized  for  an  entirely  different  kind  of  business,  and  the 
rules  and  regulations  of  which  may  not  be  sufficiently  flexible. 
If  the  stores  are  operated  by  independent  persons,  the  town  man- 
ager may  exert  a  powerful  influence  in  insisting  upon  clean, 
hygienic  conditions,  moderate  prices  and  courteous  service — 
more  effectively,  perhaps,  than  if  the  store  were  directly  and 
completely  controlled  by  the  town  management  department. 

It  is  recognized,  however,  in  some  cases  greater  efficienc}', 
goods  at  lower  prices,  cleaner  products  are  more  readily  ob- 
tainable under  company  control  than  with  several  inefficiently 
and  incompetently  managed  stores.  Then  again,  some  classes 
of  labor  cannot  readily  finance  themselves  for  family  pur- 
chases. Such  cases  call  for  careful  supervision  and  manage- 
ment so  as  to  eliminate  the  objections  as  far  as  possible. 

Cooperative  stores  have  had  much  success  in  England  and  on 
the  Continent.  The  basic  principle  seems  sound.  Superfluous 
links  in  the  profit  chain  are  eliminated.  They  cause  people  to 
take  a  greater  interest  in  store  economies,  because  they  become 
sharers  in  all  benefits  derived.  While  several  of  the  early 
attempts  in  this  country  failed,  useful  lessons  maybe  learned 
from  them,  and  there  is  much  promise  in  the  possibility  of  the 
successful  application  of  this  principle.  It  would  be  well  worth 
while  for  all  promoters  of  industrial  towns  to  searchingly  in- 
vestigate the  theory  and  practice  of  cooperative  stores. 

Policing. — The  policing  of  a  company  town  is  a  task  of  the 
most  serious  responsibility — one  that  may  be  handled  with  little 


382  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

difficulty  for  long  periods,  only  to  have  thrust  upon  it  suddenly 
duties  and  opportunities  of  the  gravest  importance. 

All  the  police  of  a  company-controlled  town  should  have  a 
legal  status,  that  is,  they  should  be  deputized  officially  by  a 
governing  body — either  city,  county  or  state.  Company  police — 
that  is,  employees  of  the  companjr  assuming  unofficial  authority 
— should  not  be  employed.  Inside  the  plant,  company  watch- 
men or  guards  may  be  used,  but  never  in  the  town. 

It  has  been  said  that  efficient  deputy  sheriffs  are  born,  not 
made.  While  this  office  carries  with  it  no  great  prestige,  in 
order  to  fill  it  ably,  a  man  must  be  courageous,  both  physically 
and  morally;  he  must  be  absolutely  honest,  and  at  the  same  time 
fully  informed  upon  all  dishonest  practices  and  artifices;  and  he 
must  display  judgment  and  tact,  as  many  regulations  that  he 
enforces  are  subject  to  his  own  interpretation. 

The  prudent  town  manager  must  always  have  at  hand  care- 
fully worked  out  plans  as  to  procedure  in  case  of  serious  dis- 
orders, conflagration  or  calamity.  In  dealing  with  lawless 
people,  nothing  is  so  advantageous  as  being  one  move  in  advance. 
If  the  town  is  isolated,  means  of  communication  other  than  by 
wire  to  outside  centers  must  be  maintained,  as  wires  are  readily 
cut.  Explosives  must  be  stored  so  that  strong  guards  may  be 
placed  readily  at  all  magazines.  The  water  supply  must  be 
capable  of  protection  and  guarding,  as  interruption  of  water 
service  is  a  very  simple  way  of  causing  serious  disaster  and  con- 
fusion. Facilities  for  accommodating  police  reinforcements 
should  be  available.  Crises  may  occur  which  will  require  the 
presence  of  a  corps  of  state  police  or  militia,  and  if  living  quar- 
ters for  these  can  be  quickly  provided,  better  service  will  be 
rendered. 

Many  of  the  above  suggestions  may  seem  unnecessary  pro- 
visions for  remote  contingencies,  and  it  is  to  be  desired  that 
occasion  should  never  arise  to  require  their  application;  but  this 
in  no  way  alters  the  importance  of  having  such  plans  carefully 
worked  out  in  advance. 

Fire  Protection. — In  addition  to  using  fire  retardant  materials 
in  construction  and  having  an  adequate  water  system  for  protec- 
tion in  case  of  fire,  a  corps  of  fire  fighters  should  be  organized  in 
every  town.  A  part-time  organization  is  all  that  is  necessary 
in  many  instances,  the  members  giving  services  voluntarily, 
or  being  paid,  as  the  case  demands.     Better  service  will  generally 


MANAGEMENT  OF  INDUSTRIAL   TOWNS  383 

be  rendered  if  the  members,  or  at  least  a  small  nucleus  for  a 
regular  force,  are  paid.  The  corps  should  have  a  chief  or  captain, 
who  devotes  his  entire  time  to  the  job.  He  can  profitably  spend 
his  time  inspecting  and  testing  out  fire  hydrants,  hose,  etc.,  in- 
specting and  calling  attention  to  fire  hazards  and  working  out 
problems  for  fighting  fires  in  difficult  places  throughout  the  town. 
The  fire  fighting  corps  should  meet  regularly  and  go  through 
drills,  so  as  to  be  prepared  in  advance  for  emergency. 

Provision  should  also  be  made  in  advance  for  furnishing  relief 
in  case  of  a  serious  fire.  Utensils  for  cooking  and  serving  food 
in  large  quantifies  should  be  available.  Means  should  be  plan- 
ed in  advance  of  getting  in  touch  with  relief  agencies,  to  obtain 
food,  tents,  blankets,  etc.  All  of  these  details,  if  prepared  in 
advance,  will  tend  to  eliminate  confusion  at  the  time  of  disaster. 

School  System. — The  school  system  of  a  company-controlled 
town  need  not  be  dominated  by  the  company.  Should  funds 
be  low.  the  company  may  assist  in  providing  the  building,  but 
the  system  of  education  should  be  under  the  control  of  the  state 
or  county  officials.  The  school  system  should  conform  to  local 
requirements.  If  the  public  schools  of  large  cities  can  attempt 
to  serve  their  diversified  commercial  and  industrial  needs,  cer- 
tainly the  school  system  of  a  company  town  can  effectively  do 
as  much.  Vocational  and  manual  training  should  be  introduced 
and  emphasized,  with  a  view  of  developing  boys  for  positions 
they  are  to  assume  later.  In  an  industrial  community  the  school 
training  may  well  stress  industrial,  rather  than  the  classical 
lines.  The  curricula  should  be  moulded  to  serve  the  needs  of  the 
ninety  per  cent,  whose  future  lies  with  industry,  rather  than  of 
the  ten  per  cent,  who  may  pursue  higher  education. 

Recreational  Activities. — The  necessity  of  promoting  healthful 
recreations  for  the  men,  women  and  children  of  an  isolated  town 
is  a  very  important  function  of  the  town  management.  If  the 
principles  of  self-support  and  of  participation  in  control  are 
important  for  the  town,  they  are  even  more  so  for  recreational 
a<  t  ivities.  Clubs  should  be  self -managed;  the  directorate  should 
be  elected  by  the  members,  who  should  be  charged  dues  for  the 
privilege  of  belonging  to  the  club.  In  a  similar  way  athletics 
should  be  organized  and  controlled  democratically.  The  affairs 
of  such  clubs  may  not  run  as  smoothly  as  if  arbitrarily  dictated 
by  a  company  officer,  but  in  the  long  run  the  self-managed  in- 
st  it  uf  ion  will  win  out. 


384  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

The  role  of  the  town  manager  in  regard  to  recreation  should  be 
one  of  self-effacement;  whatever  his  activities,  they  should  be 
indirect.  If  of  the  right  type,  he  can  tactfully  see  that  such 
activities  are  promoted  and  developed  by  the  people  themselves, 
his  interest  being  kept  in  the  background.  Once  the  movement 
is  started,  and  the  interest  and  enthusiasm  of  the  people  aroused, 
the  ideas  and  suggestions  will  be  abundant. 

Town  Managership. — The  success  or  failure  of  company- 
controlled  towns  is  seriously  affected  by  the  type  of  man  selected 
for  the  position  of  town  manager.  If  the  town  management  is 
separate  from  the  plant  management — and  it  should  be,  wherever 
possible — the  man  selected  must  be  one  of  force,  initiative  and 
with  a  sense  of  responsibility.  Of  course  this  entire  question  is 
modified  by  the  size  of  the  industrial  town  under  considera- 
tion. If  there  is  but  a  small  group  of  houses,  the  part-time 
services  of  an  able  man  would  be  conducive  to  better  results  than 
would  the  full-time  services  of  a  man  of  less  capacity. 

In  the  case  of  part-time  services,  it  may  mean  the  closer  relation- 
ship between  town  and  plant  management — unless  the  services 
of  an  outside  organization,  which  has  had  experience  in  the  man- 
agement of  other  towns,  can  be  obtained.  Such  advisory  and 
directing  service  is  but  a  step  beyond  the  management  of  water 
works,  power  plants,  health  service  and  safety  inspection  by 
part-time  expert  service,  and  there  seems  no  good  reason  why 
complete  towns  should  not  be  managed  in  a  similar  way. 

No  definite  training  can  be  recommended  as  furnishing  the 
best  foundation  for  success  in  this  field.  A  number  of  the  profes- 
sions have  supplied  capable  town  managers,  among  whom  might 
be  mentioned  school  masters,  Y.  M.  C.  A.  secretaries,  lawyers, 
doctors,  engineers,  real  estate  men,  etc.  Executive  ability  and 
human  qualities  are  more  important,  perhaps,  than  character  of 
professional  training  and  experience;  but  all  things  considered, 
in  large  developments  that  are  being  built  from  the  ground  up, 
it  would  appear  that,  provided  he  has  the  other  necessary  quali- 
fications, one  of  the  engineers  who  has  taken  an  active  part  in 
the  town  construction,  would  probably  be  as  suitable  for  the  pos- 
tion  as  anyone  could  be. 

SUBURBAN  INDUSTRIAL  TOWNS 

Usually  Independent. — Just  as  isolated  industrial  towns  tend  to 
become  company-controlled,  so  the  tendency  is  for  industrial 


MANAGEMENT  OF  INDUSTRIAL  TOWNS  385 

towns  built  adjacent  or  in  proximity  to  established  centers  to 
become  independent  civic  units,  as  far  as  the  company  is  con- 
cerned. This  is  altogether  a  desirable  condition,  the  only  feature 
to  be  guarded  against  being  the  intrusion  of  other  large  industries 
in  the  vicinity,  which  might  tend  to  create  house  shortage,  pro- 
viding the  new  industries  failed  to  promote  a  housing  project — a 
practice  all  too  seldom  pursued. 

Methods  of  Selling  Houses. — From  the  outset  suburban  towns 
should  be  planned  and  developed  with  the  expectation  that  the 
houses  will  eventually  be  owned  by  the  people.  While  the  layout 
of  the  town  should  be  made  under  the  company's  directon,  there 
is  no  reason  why  the  prospective  buyers  of  the  houses  should 
not  select,  within  certain  limitations,  the  types  of  houses  de- 
sired. This  need  not  interfere  with  any  zoning  regulations  or 
architectural  requirements  prescribed  by  the  town  builders. 

In  Chapter  II,  methods  of  buying  and  paying  for  homes  by 
employees  were  briefly  outlined,  some  of  them  involving  trans- 
actions between  the  company  and  the  purchaser;  others  making 
use  of  a  subsidiary  realty  company;  and  still  others  effected 
through  cooperative  tenant  associations,  in  which  shares  of 
stock,  rather  than  deeds  to  particular  houses,  are  the  instruments 
of  ownership  and  transfer.  All  of  these  systems  have  the  same 
purpose — to  safeguard  the  interest  both  of  the  industrial  worker 
and  of  the  industry.  Before  any  plan  is  chosen,  it  should  be 
carefully  investigated  and  adapted  to  local  conditions. 

Revenue-Producing  Utilities. — Closely  connected  with  the 
question  of  sale  of  houses  is  the  one  of  providing  suitable  water, 
gas  and  electrical  services.  All  of  these  services  are  revenue- 
producing  and  should  be  self-supporting.  When  the  project  is 
developed  within  reach  of  public  utility  companies  already 
organized,  contracts  should  be  made  with  such  companies  for 
extension  of  their  services.  Alert  utility  companies  are  always 
ready  to  enlarge  their  territory,  if  it  promises  a  suitable  and 
steady  income,  and  while,  in  some  cases,  financial  assistance  may 
be  sought  from  the  industry  by  the  utility  companies,  this  assist- 
ance should  be  required  for  a  temporary  period  only  and,  if 
granted,  constitutes  a  reasonably  safe  investment. 

If  utility  companies  are  not  available  for  service,  it  will  be 
necessary  for  the  promoters  of  the  town  to  organize  utility  com- 
panies to  install  the  equipment  and  furnish  the  service  required. 
Such  public  utility  companies  should  be  organized  separately 

25 


386  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

from  the  land  or  housing  companies,  and  the  cost  of  construct- 
ing their  systems  should  be  kept  quite  apart  from  other  costs. 
This  procedure  is  advisable  because,  if  later  the  town  should  be 
incorporated  and  if  it  should  appear  expedient  to  buy  out  and 
operate  its  public  services,  the  transaction  can  be  arranged  with 
less  confusion  and  with  greater  equity. 

Non-Revenue-Producing  Public  Services. — Public  improve- 
ments and  services,  such  as  roads,  pavements,  sewers  and  public 
parks  are  not  so  easily  finances  as  are  the  water,  gas  and  electrical 
services.  Much  depends  upon  how  easily  and  rapidly  the  houses 
are  sold,  how  soon  the  streets  are  dedicated  and  accepted  by  the 
civic  unit  in  which  they  are  situated,  and  whether  or  not  the  town 
is  incorporated  as  an  independent  civic  unit  or  is  annexed  to  an 
existing  city.  It  is  difficult  to  incorporate  the  town  in  advance 
of  its  completion;  and  if  it  is  to  be  annexed  to  an  existing  city, 
the  project  can  not  ordinarily  wait  for  municpial  machinery  to 
reach  the  point  of  building  pavements  and  extending  sewers. 

The  result  is  that  the  building  company  must  construct  the 
sewers  and  pave  the  streets.  The  cost  of  these  can  be  added  to 
the  cost  of  the  houses.  If  the  town  is  incorporated  at  an  early 
date,  the  cost  of  paving  and  laying  sewers  in  the  street  intersec- 
tions may  possibly  be  recovered  from  the  city. 

The  cost  of  park  improvements  is  generally  more  difficult 
to  defray.  As  a  rule,  parks  will  remain  in  the  hands  of  the  realty 
company  promoting  the  project  until  a  later  period,  when  they 
may  be  either  donated  to  the  public  or  sold  to  the  municipality. 
Other  Public  Activities. — The  promotion  of  other  public 
activities,  such  as  school  systems,  policing,  fire  protection,  all 
commercial  enterprises  and  welfare  activities,  in  suburban  towns 
can  be  managed  in  a  manner  more  or  less  the  same  as  that  pre- 
viously described  under  isolated  company-controlled  towns,  the 
principal  difference  being  that  the  period  of  company  control  is 
of  less  duration  and  the  degree  of  such  control  less  marked. 

Just  as  rapidly  as  residents  in  a  town  become  property  owners, 
their  interest  in  civic  affairs  rises.  The  town  is  their  town;  their 
savings  are  staked  upon  its  prosperity;  their  children  must  be 
raised  and  educated  there.  A  transformation  takes  place.  It 
is  their  duty  to  see  that  policing  is  efficient;  that  the  fire  protec- 
tion is  adequate.  They  will  quickly  become  cognizant  of  their 
rights  as  citizens  and  property  holders  and,  in  a  short  time,  the 
company's  share  in  the  control  of  the  town  will  become  less  and 


MANAGEMENT  OF  INDUSTRIAL  TOWNS  387 

less  marked,  until  the  final  result  is  an  independent,  self-govern- 
ing municipality,  similar  to  other  American  (owns  in  its  hustling 
energy  and  its  commercial  prosperity.  But,  if  the  industrial 
company  has  done  its  work  well,  it  will  be  superior  to  them  in 
being  logically  planned  and  efficiently  constructed;  in  a  greater 
civic  solidarity  fostered  by  common  industrial  interests; and  in  all 
the  advantages  that  follow  from  the  application  of  broad  vision 
and  great-hearted  intelligence  to  the  building  of  a  community  of 
homes. 


A 
BRIEF  SELECTED  BIBLIOGRAPHY 

OF 

INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

AND 

RELATED  ACTIVITIES 

Compiled  from 

various  bibliographies  on  housing  and  town  planning 

AND    FROM 

MATERIAL    AVAILABLE    IN    THE    LIBRARY 
OF 

Morris  Knowles,  Inc. 

Ackermant,  Frederick  L.  The  Government,  the  Architect  and  the  Artisan 
in  Relation  to  Government  Housing,  (In  American  Institute  of  Archi- 
tects, Proceedings,  Washington,  1918.) 

Adams,  Thomas.  Partner-ownership  Building  Societies.  (In  Canada, 
Commission  of  Conservation.  "Conservation  of  Life."  Ottawa, 
October,  1919.) 

Allen,  Leslie  H.  Industrial  Housing  Problems.  Boston,  Aberthaw 
Construction  Co.,  1917. 

Alpha  Portland  Cement  Co.  A  Concrete  City.  Easton,  Pa.  The 
Company,  1918. 

American  Architect.  Issues  of  August  7,  1918,  and  March  19,  1919,  and 
others.     Boston. 

American  City.  (Various  issues.)  New  York.  American  City  Publishing 
Co. 

American  City  Planning  Institute.  Town  Planning  Lessons  from  Govern- 
ment Housing  Operations.     Philadelphia,  The  Institute,  1919. 

American  Concrete  Institute.     Proceedings,  Boston,  The  Institute. 

American  Society  for  Municipal  Improvements,  Proceedings,  Bloomington, 
111.,  The  Secretary. 

American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers.  Final  Report  of  Committee  on  Mate- 
rial for  Road  Construction.  (In  Transactions,  Vol.  LXXXII,  New 
York,  December,  1918.) 

388 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  389 

Annals,    The.     Housing   and    Town    Planning  Issue,  Vol.    LI,    Baltimore. 

American    Academy   of    Political   and    Social    Science,    January,    1914. 
Architectural    Record.     (Various    issues,    describing   Government    projects 

and  the  design  oi  houses  for  workmen.)     New  York.     The  Architectural 

Recoid  Co. 
Architectural   Review.     (Various   issues,    containing   articles   regarding    the 

design  of  houses  for  workmen.)     New  York,  The  Architectural  Review, 

Inc. 
Attekbtjry,   G.     Model  Towns  in   America.     Publication   No.   17.     New 

York,  National  Housing  Association,  1913. 
Bauer,  Eva  E.  von.     Hellerau,  the  City  of  the  Future.     (In  The  Craftsman, 

Febuary,  1912.)      Vol.  21,  pp.  536-546. 
Bird,    Charles   S.,    Jr.     Town    Planning  for  SmalJ  Communities.     New 

York,  D.  Appleton  &  Co,  1917. 
Blanchard,    A.    H.     American    Highway    Engineer's    Handbook.     New 

York,  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  1919. 
Boston    Public   Library.     A   list   of   books   relating   to   housing.      Boston, 

The  Library,  1918. 
Cadbury,  George,  Jr.     Town  Planning.     New  Y'oik,  Longmans,   Green 

&  Co.,  1915. 
Cerda,   Ildelfonso.     Teoria  General  de  la   Urbanizacion    y    Aplicacion 

de  sus  Principios  y  Doctrinas  a  la  Reforma  y  Ensanche  de  Barcelona. 

Madrid,  Impr.  Espanola,  1867,  2  v. 
Chicago     City     Waste     Commission.     Report     ot     Waste     Commission. 

Chicago,  The  Commission,  1914. 
Comey,  Arthur  C.     Report  on  Four  City  Planning  Studies  for  Lawrence. 

(In  Lawrence,  Mass.  Planning  Board,  Second  Annual  Report,  The  Board, 

Lawrence,  1915.) 
Crawford,  Andrew  Wright.     Standards  Set  by  the   New  Federal  War 

Suburbs  and  War  Cities:  Washington,  D.  C,  American  Civic  Asso- 
ciation, 1918. 
Croft,   Terrell.     Wiring  foi   Light  and   Power.     New   York,   McGraw- 
Hill  Book  Co.  (1917). 
Deutsche      Gartenstadt-Geselschaft.     Die      Deutsche      Gartenstadtbewe- 

gung.      Berlin,  1911. 
Ellms,     Joseph     W.      Water     Purification.     New     Y'ork,     McGraw-Hill 

Book  Co.,  1917. 
Engineering  News-Record.     (Various  issues.)     New  Y'ork,  McGraw-Hill  Co., 

Inc. 
England,  Trade  Board.     Cost  ot  living  in  Belgium;  report  of  an  enquiry 

into  working  class  rents,  housing  and  retail  prices,  together  with  the 

rates  of  wages  in  certain  occupations  in  the  principal  industrial  towns 

of  Belgium,  with  an  introductory  memorandum  and  a  comparison  of 

conditions  in  Belgium  and  the  United  Kingdom,  London,  1910. 
England,  Trade  Board.      Cost  of  living  of  the  working  classes;  report  of  an 

enquiry  into  working  class  rents,  housing  and  retail  prices,  together  with 

the  standard   rates  of  wages  prevailing  in  certain  occupations  in  the 

principal  industrial  towns  of  the  United  Kingdom,  with  an  introductory 

memorandum,  London,  1908. 


y 


390  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

England,  Trade  Board.  Cost  of  living  in  French  towns;  report  of  an  en- 
quiry into  working  class  rents,  housing  and  retail  prices,  together  with 
the  rates  of  wages  in  certain  occupations  in  the  principal  industrial 
towns  of  France,  with  an  introductory  memorandum  and  a  comparison 
of  conditions  in  France  and  the  United  Kingdom,  London,  1909. 

England,  Trade  Board.  Cost  of  living  in  German  towns;  report  of  an 
enquiry  into  working  class  rents,  housing  and  retail  prices,  together 
with  the  rates  of  wages  in  certain  occupations  in  the  principal 
industrial  towns  of  the  German  empire,  with  an  introductory  memoran- 
dum and  a  comparison  of  conditions  in  Germany  and  the  United  King- 
dom, London,  1908. 

Flinn,  Weston  &  Bogart.  Waterworks  Handbook.  New  York, 
McGraw-Hill  Book  Co,  1916. 

Ford,  J.  A  selected  list  of  books  and  articles  on  housing  and  city  planning. 
(In  his  Housing  Problem,  pp.  32-39.  Harvard  University,  Depart- 
ment of  Social  Ethics,  Publications,  No.  5,  1911.) 

Fuller,  George  W.  Sewage  Disposal.  New  York,  McGraw-Hill 
Book  Co.,  1912. 

Fuller,  H.  B.  Building  Gary,  Indiana,  to  Order.  (In  Harper's  Weekly, 
Vol.  51,  pp.  1482-1483.     New  York,  October  12,  1907.) 

Garden  Suburbs,  Town  Planning  and  Modern  Architecture;  with  Con- 
tributions by  Various  Authors.     London,  T.  F.  Unwin,  1910. 

General  Motors  Corporation.  Modern  Housing;  Corporation  Homes  for 
Employees  and  Plan  for  Acquiring  Them.  New  York,  The  Corpora- 
tion, 1919. 

Gillette,  Halbert  P.  Handbook  of  Cost  Data.  New  York,  McGraw- 
Hill  Book  Co,  1914- 

Gray,  Alexander.  Principles  and  Practice  of  Electrical  Engineering. 
New  York,  McGraw-Hill  Book  Co.,  1917. 

Great  Britain,  Local  Government  Board.  Report  of  committee  to  consider 
building  construction  in  connection  with  provision  of  dwellings  for 
working  classes  in  England,  Wales  and  Scotland,  and  report  upon 
methods  of  securing  economy  and  despatch  in  provisions  of  same. 
London,  1918. 

Great  Britain,  Ministry  of  Health,  Housing  Department,  Housing  (Periodi- 
cal), London. 

Great  Britain,  Parliament.  Report  of  the  Royal  Commission  on  the  Hous- 
ing of  the  Industrial  Population  of  Scotland,  Rural  and  Urban. 
London,  1917. 

Hazen,  Allen.  The  Filtration  of  Public  Water  Supplies.  New  York, 
John  Wiley  &  Sons,  1900. 

Hessischer  Zentralverein  fur  Errichtung  Billiger  Wohnungen.  Praktische 
Wohnungsf ursorge  in  Hessen ;  Er nst-Ludwig-Verein-Darmstadt.  Darm- 
stadt, Der  Verein,  1908. 

Housing  Betterment,  (Quarterly.)  New  York,  National  Housing 
Association. 

Hubbard,   Henry,   V.     Some   Preliminary  Considerations  in  Government 
Industrial  War  Housing.      (In   Landscape    Architecture,    July,    1918.) 
Ihlder,  John.     City  Housing;   Past  and   Future.     New  York,  National 
Housing  Association,  1915. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY  391 

Journal  of  the  American  InstituU  of  Architects.     April  and  November,  1917, 

May  L918,  and  other  issues.     Washngton,  The  Institute. 
Kidder,  I.  E.     Building  Construction  and  Superintendence.     New  York, 

W.  T.  Comstock,  L909,  2  parts. 
Kimball,     Theodora.     Classified     selected     list    of    reference    on    city 

planning.      Boston,     National     Conference     on     City    Planning,    The 

Secretary,  1915. 
Kimball,  Theodora.     Reviewof  City  Planning  in  the  ("nited  States,  1917- 

1919.     (In  National  Municipal  Review;     Concord,  N.  II.,  Nov.,  1917 

and  Jan.,  1920.) 
Kimball,   Theodora.     Selected    Bibliography   of    Industrial    Housing  in      ^^ 

America   and   Great   Britain   During   and    After    the   War  (Reprinted 

from    Report    of    Bureau    of    Industrial    Housing   and    Transportation. 

Washington,  D.  C.  U.  S.  Housing  Corporation,  1919.) 
Kxowles,    Morris.     Engineering    Problems  of    Regional  Planning.     (In 

Engineering  News-Record.     New  York,  June  12,  1919.) 
Kxowles,    Morris.     What    about  Government    Housing    Program.      (In 

Engineering  News-Record.      New  York,  February  13,  1919.) 
Landscape  Architecture.     Special  housing  number,  April,  1918,  Vol.  8,  and 

others.     New  York,  Landscape  Architecture,  Inc.,  1918. 
Ltjndqtjist,    R.    A.     Transmission    Line    Construction.     New    York    Mc- 
Graw-Hill Book  Co.,  1912. 
Lewis,     Nelson    P.     The  Planning  of    the    Modern    City.     New    York, 

John  Wiley  &  Sons,  1916. 
LYNDON,      Lamar.     Hydro-electric      Power.     New      York,      McGraw-Hill 

Book  Co.,  1916,  2  v. 
Magnussox,    Leifur.     Employers'  Housing    in    the    United    States.      (In 

United  Slates  Bureau  of  Labor  Statistics.      Monthly  Review,  Washington 

Government  Printing  Office,  November,  1917.) 
MaGNTJBSON,  Leifur.     Modern  Industrial  Suburb.     (In  United  Stales  Bureau 

of    Labor    Statistics.     Monthly     Review,     Washington,      Government 

Printing  Office,  April,  1918.) 
Magxtjssox,  Leifur.      War  Housing  in  Great  Britain.      (In  United  States 

Bureau  of  Labor  Statistic*.     Monthly  Review.   Washington,    Govern- 
ment Printing  Office,  December,  1917.) 
Martix,    C.    A.      Details  of    Building    Construction.      New    York,  W.    T. 

Comstock,  1916. 
Massachusetts,    Bureau    of     Statistics.     Homesteads     for     Workingmen.     w^ 

Boston,  The  Bureau,  1912. 
Mi. akin,        BtTDGETT.      Model      Factories       and       Villages.      Philadelphia, 

George  N.  Jacobs  &  Co.    1906. 
Metcalf   &  Eddy.     American  Sewerage   Practice.     New  York,  McGraw 

Hill  Book  Co..  nil  i.  :;  v. 
Morse,  W.  P.     Collection  and  Disposal  of  Municipal  Wastes.     (In  Municipal 

Journal  and   Engineer.      New    York,  1908.) 
National  Conference   on  City  Plannixg.    Proceeding*.     Boston,  The 

Secretary. 

National  Conference   on    Housing.     Housing    Problems    in    America. 
Proceedings,     New  York,  National  Housing  Association. 


392  INDUSTRIAL  HOUSING 

National  Fire    Protection    Association.     Recommendation  on  Emergency 

Housing.      Boston,  The  Association,  1918. 
Nettlefold,    J.    S.     Practical   Housing.     Letchworth,  Garden   City  Press, 

1908. 
New  South  Wales,  Commissioner.     Housing  of   Workmen  in  Europe  and 

America,  by  R.  F.  Irvine.     Sydney,   New  South  Wales,  Government 

Printer,  1913. 
New   Zealand,     Minister    of    Labour.     Report    on    Workers'    Dwellings. 

New  Zealand,  The  Department,  1909. 
Nolen,  John.     City  Planning.     New  York,  D.  Appleton  &  Co.,  1916. 
Nolen,  John.     General    Features  of    a    Park    System    for  Chattanooga. 

Boston,  G.  H.  Ellis  Co.,  1911. 
Nolen,   John.     A   Good   Home  for   Every   Wage    Earner.     Washington, 

American  Civic  Association,  1915. 
Nolen,  John.     Industrial  Housing.     (In  Proceedings,  Vol.  5.     New  York, 

National  Housing  Association,  1916.) 
Nolen,  John.     New  Ideals  in  the  Planning  of  Cities,  Towns  and  Villages. 

New  York,  American  City  Bureau,  1919. 
Olmsted,  Frederick  L.     The  Planning  of  Residential  Suburbs,  with  Special 

Reference  to  Engineering  Features.  (In  Mu?iicipal  and  County  Engineer- 
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Olmsted,    Frederick    L.     City    Planning,    American    Civic  Association. 

Washington,  The  Association,  1910. 
Olmsted,  Frederick  L.     Lessons  from  the  Housing  Developments  of  the 

United  States  Housing  Corporation.      (In  the    United  States   Bureau 

of  Labor  Statistics.     Washington,   Government  Printing  Office,   May, 

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Ontario,  Bureau  of  Municipal  Affairs.     Report  regarding  housing,  including 

act,  rules  and  regulations,  housing  standards,  provisions  to  be  considered 

and  forms.     Toronto,  The  Government,  1919. 
Ontario  Housing  Committee.     Report  on  Treatment  of  the  Surroundings  of 

the  Small  Home.     Toronto,  The  Government,  1919. 
Pender,      Harold.     American      Handbook      for      Electrical     Engineers. 

New  York,  John  Wiley  &  Sons,  1914. 
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Kellogg,  Vol.  2-5.     New  York,  Russell  Sage  Foundation,  1910,  10,  4  v. 
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*s 


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Standard    Handbook   for   Electrical   Engineers.     New  York,   McGraw-Hill 

Book  Co. 
Tatlob,   Graham   R.     Satellite  Cities.     New   York,   D.  Appleton  &  Co., 

L915. 
Thompson,  W.     Housing  of  the  Working  Classes,  with  a  Description  of  the 

Richmond  Municipal  Cottages.     Richmond,  England,  1899. 
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Turnbatjre    iV     Russell.     Public    Water    Supplies.     New     York,    John 

Wiley  A:  Sons,  1916. 
United   State-.    Labor   Department.     Standards    Recommended  for   Per- 
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Owning  and  Housing  of  Working  People  in  Foreign  Countries.     Wash- 
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New  York,  National  Housing  Association,  1918. 
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52,  New  York,  National  Housing  Association,  191S. 
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F.  R.  Walker,  1919. 
Wegmann,     Edward.     Conveyance    and    Distribution    of    Water.     New 

Fork,  I).  Van  NostiandCo.,  1918. 
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Wood,   E.   E.     The  Housing  of  the  Unskilled  Wage  Earner.     New  York, 

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Estate  Journal,  Indianapolis,  January  l'.».  1920 


INDEX 


Access,  see  Distance  between  bouses. 
Adjacency  of  home  and  factory,  40, 

II 
Administration  of  housing  develop- 
ment, sec  Housing  project. 
Air  lift,  see  Pumps. 
Albany   Health  Department.     Rec- 
ommended     standards  for 
dwellings,  300 
Allen,     Leslie     M.     Recommended 
standards     for     dwellings. 
299 
Alleys,  91 
area,  57 

cost  of  construction,  92 
width,  91 
Allotment  of  areas,  55,  57 
Alum,   see  coagulation,  under  Water 

purification. 
American  Society  of  Civil  Engineers. 
Recommendations  for  maxi- 
mum street  grades,  123 
recommendations  of  camber  for 
pavements,  126 
American  Water  Works  Association. 
Recommendations  for   hy- 
drant installation,  1 78 
Apartment  house,  see  Houses. 
Area  allowed  per  house,  57 

allowed  for  streets  and  alleys,  57 
desirable  for  townsites,  14 
for  parks  and  recreat  ional  facili- 
ties, 73 
for  playgrounds,  7ti 
for  recreational  purposes,  57 
of  commercial  districts,  67 
of  gardens,  66 
of  lots.     Effect  on  cost  of  public 

Utilities,    L03 
of  residential  lots.  63,    1  12,   113, 
116 
Army  housing,  see  Cantonment  con- 
struction. 


Ash  disposal,  see  Waste  disposal. 

Asphalt,  see  Pavements. 

Athletic  fields,  77 

Atlantic     Heights     project,     Ports- 
mouth, N.  H. 
electric  installations,  290 
park  projects,  74 

Attraction  of  similar  industries,  38 

Automobile     haulage,     see     Trans- 
portation facilities. 

Automobiles.     Parking     space     on 
st  reets,  93 

Bacteria  in  water,  see  Water. 

Bakery,  347 

Bathrooms,      see     Houses;     Shower 

baths. 
Bibliography   of  industrial   housing 
and  related  activities,   388 
Bituminous    pavements,    see    Pave- 
ments. 
Blind     streets,     see     court,      under 

Streets. 
Blocks.      Arrangement,  60,  315 

dimensions,  59 

grouping  of  units,  314 

preliminary  survey,  107 
Boarding  houses.      Bathrooms,  338 

billiard  rooms,  340 

custodian,  336 

for  single  men,  334 

for  single  women,  340 

large.  335 

lighting,  339 

management,  340 

mat  ron.  3  I  I 

rooms.  339,  341 

small.  335 

toilet   rooms,  338,  341 

see     also     Company     boarding 

bouses;    Houses. 

Boulevards,  7  I,  90,  108 
Brainerd,  Owen,  111 


395 


396 


INDEX 


Brick,  see  Pavements. 

Buckeye  Land  Co.     Townsite  plan, 

62 
Buckman  Village,  Chester,  Pa.,  59 
electric  installation,  288 
park  projects,  74 
sewerage  system,  204,  205 
streets,  84 
Budget,  see  Housing  project. 
Building   and  loan  associations,  see 
Loan    and    realty    associa- 
tions. 
Building  materials,  302,  318,  333 
brick,  322,  323 
concrete,  134,  320 
cost,  322,  323 
handling,  365 
stucco,  319,  321 
wood,  319,  322 
see  also  Houses. 
Building  organization,  see,  organiza- 
tion,   under    Housing    pro- 
ject. 
Building  organizations,  27 
Building  restrictions,  51 
Buildings  for  special  purposes,  345, 
350,  358 
see      also      Boarding     houses; 
Churches;  Company  board- 
ing    houses ;     Gymnasium ; 
Hospitals;   Houses;   School 
houses;  Store  buildings. 
Bungalows,  see  Houses. 
Burnt  clay,  see  Pavements. 
Business  enterprises,  see  Commercial 
enterprises. 

Cable  laying,  see  Electric  distribu- 
tion. 

Camber,  see  Pavements. 

Camps,  Army,  see  Cantonment 
construction. 

Camps,  Company,  see  Company 
towns. 

Camps,  Mining,  see  Mining  camps. 

Canadian  Steel  Co.,  Ltd.,  Ill 

Cantonment  construction,  8 

Catch  basins,  see  Combined  sewers; 
Storm  drainage. 


Catch   basins  for   pavement   drain- 
age, 127 
Cellars,  see  Houses. 
Cemeteries,  78 

Centrifugal  pump,  see  Pumps. 
Chlorine,     see     sterilization,     under 

Water  purification. 
Chlorine  in  water,  160 
City  planning,  3 
Churches,  350 

City   wastes,   see   Sewage   disposal; 
Sewerage;  Waste  disposal. 
Civic     center.     Location     and     ar- 
rangement, 71  . 
location  in  commercial  district, 

67,  71 
see  also  Community  house. 
Clearance  between  houses,  see  Dis- 
tance between  houses. 
Climate.     Effect    on    selection    and 
development     of     housing 
site,  48 
effect    on    water    consumption, 

151,  152 
influence  on  choice  of  building 
materials,  319 
Closets,  see  Houses. 
Club  room,  353 
Cobblestone,  see  Pavements. 
Collection  of  waste,   see  Waste  dis- 
posal. 
Combined  sewers,  219 
capacity,  220 
catch  basins,  221 
depth,  221 
grades,  220 

velocity  of  sewage  flow,  220 
Commercial  districts.     Location  and 

area,  67 
Commercial   enterprises   in   average 
community,  70 
municipal  supervision,  380 
Community.     Proportion   of   work- 
men's time  spent  outside  of 
factory,  13 
Community       center,       see      Civic 

center. 
Community  house,  352 
see  also  Civic  center. 


INDEX 


397 


Company  boarding   houses.     Early 
stage  of  industrial  housing, 
1,6 
see  also  Boarding  houses. 

Company    control,     see    Industrial 

town. 
Company  housing  bureaus,  30 
Company-owned  houses,  25 
Company  stores,  see  Stores. 
Company  town,  see  Industrial  town. 
Concrete,  see  Building  materials. 
( Soncrete  pavements,  see  Pavements. 
Conductors,    see    Electric    distribu- 
tion. 
Congestion  of  industries,  5 
Conjugal  relationship,  see  Workmen. 
Construction,  see  Housing  project. 
Constructive    development    of    in- 
dustrial housing,  5,  43 
Contour    interval,    see    Mapt    topo- 
graphic. 
Contour  streets,  sec  Street  systems. 
Contractor,  see  Housing  project. 
Contracts  for  housing,  see  Housing 

project. 
Cooking,  see  Gas. 

Cooperative  ownership,  see  Houses. 
Cooperative  stores,  .see  Stores. 
Cost,  Construction,  10,  359 
of  alley  construction,  92 
of  building  materials,  322 
of  houses,  324 

of   houses   as  affecting  require- 
ments, 294 
of  improved  house  and  lot,    IS 
of  industrial  housing,  16,  294 
of  isolated  vs.  suburban  towns, 

43 
of  labor  turnover,  14,  15 
of  land.     Effect  on  size  of  lots, 

64 
of  land  for  housing  projects,  47, 

358 
of  living,  22 

of  lot  development.     Distribu- 
tion, 107 
of  municipal  waste  disposal.  249 
of    puUie     utilities.      Effecl     of 
lot  size,  L03,  104 


Cost   of  sewers.    101,   190 

of  street  improvements,  101 

of  United  States  Housing  Cor- 
poral ion  projects,  _'*) 

of  water  supply,   1ST 
"Cost  plus"  contract,  see  contracts, 

under  Housing  project. 
Cost   reports,  see  Housing  projeet. 
Court  street-,  see  Streets. 

Crown    of    pavements,   see  camber, 

a  a  (I <-r  Pavements. 
Curbs,  146 

grading  for  drainage,  99 
temporary,  on  "elastic"  streets, 
93 
Cutting  and  idling,  see  Grading. 


Day  nursery,  353 

Dead-end  streets,  see  Streets. 

Deficiency  in  supply  of  houses,  see 

House  shortage. 
Demography.     Effect    on    selection 

of  housing  site,  49 
Density  of  dwellings,  44,  45,  58,  64, 

65,  117,  319 
Detached  houses,  see  Houses. 
Development  of  industrial  housing, 

1,3 
Distance  between  homo  and  factory, 

40,  41 
Distance  between  houses,  63,  l>."> 
Distribution  of  gas,  see  Gas. 
Distribution    of    water,    see    Water 

distribution. 
Districting,     see     Commercial     dis- 
tricts;    Manufacturing    dis- 
tricts; Zoning. 
Division  of  labor  in  industry,  2 
Double    duplex    house,    see  duplex, 

under  Houses. 
Drainage,  189,  190,  192 

see  also  Pavements;   Sewerage; 
Storm  drainage. 
Drainage  secured  by  proper  grading, 

99,  102 
Dundalk  project,  St.  Helena,  M<1..  95 
Duplex  house,  set   Houses. 
1  >wellings,  s<  i  I  Come;  I  louse-. 


398 


INDEX 


Dwellings.     Scarcity,      see      House 
shortage. 

Earth  roads,  see  Pavements. 
Easements,  see  Streets. 
East  Valley  Forge,  Pa.,  67 
Efficiency  of  employees,  15 
Electric  distribution,  276 

cables,  278 

cost,  282 

fire  alarm  systems,  286 

manholes,  278 

overhead,  277 

pole  lines,  280 

police  call  systems,  286 

rotary  converter,  276 

substations,  276 

telephone    and    telegraph    sys- 
tems, 286 

transformers,  276 

underground,  278,  281 

voltage,  277,  280 
Electric  lamps,  see  Electric  lighting. 
Electric  lighting,  282 

boarding  house,  339 

budget,  359 

garages,  317 

house,  285 

store  buildings,  344 

street,  282,  289,  291,  292 
lamps,  284 
poles,  285 
transformers,  285 
Electric    power    for    residences,    see 
domestic      service,      under 
Electricity  supply. 
Electric    railways,    see    Transporta- 
tion facilities. 
Electric  transmission,  275 

line  construction,  276 

line  voltage,  275 

right  of  way,  275 
Electrical      service,      see      Electric 

lighting;  Electricity  supply. 
Electricity  supply,  271 

bakery,  347 

budget,  359 

domestic  service,  286 

generation,  273 


Electricity     supply,     hydro-electric 
plant,  274 
internal    combustion     plant, 
274 

steam  plant,  274 
plans,  287 
purchase    from    public    utility 

company,  273 
recommendations  for  dwellings, 

304 
source,  273 
specifications,  287 
•  typical  installations,  288 
utilization,  282 
Emergency    Fleet    Corporation,    9, 
20,  61,  64,  114,  136 
density  of  housing,  45,  58 
electrical  service,  288 
fire  protection,  177 
park  projects,  73,  74 
sewage  disposal,  227,  230 
sewerage  systems,  198,  204,  207 
streets,  87,  95 
Employees,  see  Efficiency;  Loyalty; 

Women;  Workmen. 
Entrances,  see  Houses. 
Environment.     Effect  on  selection 
of  housing  site,  51 
of  worker's  family,  13 
Examples  of  industrial  housing,  6 
Expenditures,    Distribution    of  em- 
ployees', 22 

Factory.    Distance  from  town,  40,  41 

Factory  site.  Dependence  on  hous- 
ing, 38 

Factory  system  in  industry,  2,  3 

Fairview  Realty  Co.,  114 

Families  per  acre,  see  Density  of 
dwellings. 

Federal  government  housing,  see 
Governmental  housing. 

Filtration,  see  Water  purification. 

Financial  returns  from  housing  en- 
terprises, 13,16,  385 

Fire  alarm  systems,  286 

Fire  protection,  see  Industrial  town; 
fire  service,  under  water 
supply 


INDEX 


399 


Fixtures,  see  Furnil ure. 

Forest  survey  for  topographic  map, 

109 
Foundai  ions.     Subdrainage  to  avoid 
wet  cellar,  203 
see  also  Pavements;  Sewers. 
Freezing,    see    subdrainage,    under 

Pavements. 
Frontage,  64,  65,  102 

relation    to    cost    of    improve- 
ments, 105 
Furniture,  297,  303,  339 
store,  343 


( rarages,  316 

Garbage    disposal,    see    Waste    dis- 
posal. 
Garden  city  movement  in  England.  7 
Gardens,  66 
Gary,  Ind.,  6 
(las,  256 

advantages,  256 
amount  used,  261 
artificial  gas,  257 
budget,  359 
coal  gas,  257 
coke  oven  gas,  25S,  259 
cooking,  260 
distribution,  264 

high  pressure,  267 
low  pressure,  265 
regulation,  265 
specifications,  271 
valves,  268 
heating,  260 
lighting,  200 
natural  gas,  257 
piping,  262,  200,  269 
pressures,  262,  26 1 

producer  gas,  25X 
sources  of  supply,  258 
transmission,  262 
water  lias.  25S 

Government,  see  Industrial  town. 
Governmenl  aid,  se«  Subsidies. 

Government al  housing,  8,   11.  Ill 
Grade  crossings,  87 
( trades,  s<  -  St  reets. 


"Grades"  and   "types"  of    houses. 

Distinction,  308 
(hading,  97,  111 

cutting  and  filling,  100 
sumps  to  In'  avoided,   100 
Granite,  see  Pavements;  Sidewalks. 
Grease,    see   garbage,    under    Waste; 

disposal. 
Groben.  William  E.     Recommended 
standards      for      dwellings, 
299 
Ground  water,  162 

infiltration  in  sewers,   196,  199 
survey  for  topographic  map,  109 
see  also  Pumps. 
Group  houses,  see  Houses. 
Group  management  of  housing  con- 
struction, 354 
Gutter  drainage,  see  Storm  drainage. 
Gymnasium,  78,  353 

Health    administration,    see    public 
health,     under     Industrial 
town. 
Heating,  see  Gas. 
Heating  apartment  houses,  343 
Height     of     buildings.     Effect     on 
spacing,  65 
preliminary  survey,  107 
Highways,  see  Pavements;  Streets; 

Transportation  facilities. 
Hillside  development,  til 
Hiring,  see  Labor  turnover. 
History  of  industrial  housing,  1,3 
Home,  Definition,  293 

see  also  Houses. 
Hospital,  349 

Hours  of  labor,  see  Working  day. 
House  famine,  see  House  shortage. 
House    lighting,    see    Gas;    Electric 

lighting;  Orientation. 
House  shortage.  9 
Houses.  293 

accessibility,    see    Distance    be- 
tween houses. 
apartment.   309,  313,  342,   344 
bat hrooms,  304 
block  arrangement.  se<    Block- 
bungalows,  319 


400 


INDEX 


Houses,  cellars,  303 

clearance  between,  see  Distance 

between  houses, 
closets,  303 
color  scheme,  315 
cost,  324 

company  ownership  25,  302,  372 
cooperative  ownership,  25,  27 
detached,  308,  310,  314 
determination    of    number    re- 
quired, 326,  327,  358 
duplex,  309,  313 
entrances,  303 
essentials,  see  standards, 
grades,  304,  327,  330 
group  houses,  44,  56,  59,  61,  65, 

302,  303,  309,  314 
inspection,  379 
light  requirements,  304 
maintenance,  379 
materials,  see  Building  materials, 
minimum       requirements,      see 

standards, 
ownership,  42,  372,  374 
permissible  rental,  see  Rent, 
porches,  312,  315,  322 
privacy,  310,  311,  314 
private  ownership,  25,  26 
ready-cut,  318 

recommendations,  see  standards. 
relation     between    height    and 

spacing,  65 
rooms,  295,  303 

number,  296,  302,  329 

size,  297 
row  dwelling,  65,  302,  303, 

309,  314 
selling,  385 

tscnii-detached,  308,  314 
skylights,  304 

standards,  293,  295,   298,   302, 
376 

for  various  classes  of  houses, 
305 
toilet  rooms,  207,  299 
types,  308 
ventilation,  303 
water  supply,  see  Water, 
waterproofing,  321 


Houses,   see  also   Boarding  houses; 
Buildings  for  special  pur- 
poses;   Community  house; 
Company  boarding  houses  ; 
Store  buildings. 
Houses  per  acre,  see  Density  of  dwell- 
ings. 
Housing  corporations,  28 

see  also  Company  housing  bu- 
reaus; United  States  Housing 
Corporation. 
Housing  project.     Budget,   33,   358 
construction,  364 
construction  roads,  368 
contractor,  362 
contracts,  360,  363 
cost  reports,  368 
executive   control  of  construc- 
tion, 354 
organization,  34,  354 
planning,  354 
progress  reports,  368 
record  plans,  369 
revenues,  13,  16 
shape  of  tract  47,  56 
specifications,  363 
staff  of  building  organization,  37 
supervision  of  construction,  364 
technical  program,  30,  43,   53, 

107,  355,  365 
see  also  Housing  site;  Town  plan. 
Housing    site.     Dependence   on   lo- 
cation of  industries,  36 
development,  33,  358 
economic  features  governing  lo- 
cation, 37 
requirements,  39 
selection,  32,  36,  40,  42 
attractiveness,  51 
climatology,  48 
demography,  49 
environment,  51 
nuisances,  49,  56 
public  utilities,  50 
recreation,  50,  56 
sanitation,  49 
social  customs  of  commun- 
ity, 51 
soil  conditions,  48 


INDEX 


401 


Bousing  site,  topography,  18,  55 

transportation    facilities,    50, 
56 

survey,  110 
see  also  Land. 
Hub,  see  radial,    under  Street  sjrs- 

tems. 

Hydrants,    see    Water  distribution. 

Hydro-electric  plant,  see  generation, 

under    Electricity     supply. 

Hypochlorites,       see       sterilization. 

under    Water    purification. 


Ice  plant,   see  Refrigerating  plant. 
[Humiliation,   see   Electric   lighting; 

Gas;  Orientation. 
Income.     Proportion    available    for 
rent,  22 
see  also  Expenditures. 
Individualistic  era,  2 
Industrial    districts,    see    Manufac- 
turing districts. 
Industrial  town,  12,  370 

company  control,  43,  370 
cost,  16,  43 

fire  protection,  382,  386 
isolated,  13,  372 
management,  370.  374.  377,  384 
independent    of    company, 
375 

police  protection,  381,  .'1st') 
projects,  7 
public  health,  378 
public  works.  377,  379,  385,  386 
revenues.  3X5 
schools,  383,  386 
suburban,  371,  384 
supervision    of  commercial    en- 
terprises, 3N0 
Industrial  townsite.      ( lost,   17 
desiderata,  17 
development .  33 

Location,  10 

program  for  development,  31 
selection,  32,  36 
see  also  I  Lousing  projeel . 
Industries,  Dependence  on  housing, 
38 


Enternal-combustion   power  station, 
i  *   general  ion,  undt  r  EleC- 
t  ricity  supply. 
Intersection    of   si  reel  3,  set   S1  reel  s. 

Iron  in  water,  160 
Isolated  houses,  see  Houses. 

Janitor  service  in  apartments.   310, 

343 
see    also    custodian;     matron. 

under  Boarding  houses. 
Junk,     see    rubbish,     under    Waste 

disposal. 

Kilham,  Walter  H.     Recommended 

standards     for     dwellings, 

300 
Kindergarten,  353 
Kitchen  gardens,  see  Gardens. 
Knock-down  houses,  see  ready-cut. 

under  Houses. 
Kuichling,  Emil.     Leakage  of  water, 

L56 

Labor  turnover,  14,  15 

Laissez-faire  theory  as  retarding  de- 
velopment of  housing,  3 

Lampblack    for    coloring   sidewalks, 
144 

Lamps,  see  Electric  lighting. 

Land    for  housing  projects.     Acqui- 
sition, 47 
shape  and  boundaries.  47,  56 
subdivision.  56 

Laundry  facilities."  346 
boarding  houses.  341 

Laws    and    restrictions.      Effect     on 
selection  of  housing  site,  51 

Leakage,  see  infiltration,  under  Sew- 
erage; Water  waste. 

Light  requirements  of  dwellings,  see 
Houses;  ( Irientation. 

Lighting,  .see  Electric  lighting;  Gas; 
<  Orientation. 

Limestone  block,  see  Lavements. 

Litchfield,  Electus,  11  I 

Loads    permissible    on     roads,     se< 

Pavements. 
Loan  and  realty  associations,  28,  30 


402 


INDEX 


Lodging  houses,  see  Boarding  houses. 

Lorain,  Ohio,  20,  136 

Lot  improvements,  66,  358 

cost,  105 

distribution  of  cost,  107 
Lots,  Residence,  63 

size,  see  Area. 
Loveland   Farms,   Youngstown,   O., 
61,  113 

electric  installations,  292 

pavements,  136 

streets,  84,  96 

subdrainage,  125 

water  distribution,  180 
Lowell,  Francis  Cabot,  Early  recog- 
nition of  housing  problem,  6 
Loyalty  of  employees,  15 

Macadam     roads,     see    Pavements. 

Management,    see   Industrial   town. 

Manholes,  see  Electric  distribution; 
Sewers. 

Manufacturing  districts.  Site  and 
arrangement,  66 

Map,    Preliminary,    for   location  of 
townsite,  41,  107 
regional,  109 
topographic,  108,  111,  196 

Marginal  deficit,  see  Subsidies. 

Metals,  Old,  see  rubbish,  under 
Waste  disposal. 

Metering,  see  Water  metering. 

Mill  tenements,  4,  6 

Minimum  requirements  for  dwell- 
ings, see  Houses. 

Mining  camps.  Early  stage  of  in- 
dustrial housing,  4,  6 

Minors  and  women.  Housing  re- 
quirements, 330 

Monotony  avoided  by  exterior  varia- 
tion of  dwellings,  315,  316 

Morgan  Park,  Minn.,  7 

Mortgages,  29 

Motor  trucks,  see  Transportation 
facilities. 

Municipal  government,  see  Indus- 
trial town. 

Municipal  waste,  see  Sewage  dis- 
posal; Sewerage;  Waste  dis- 
posal. 


Municipality's  share  in  cost  of  lot 
development,  107 

National  Board  of  Fire  Under- 
writers. Pipe  specifica- 
tions, 179 

Natural  gas,  see  Gas. 

New  London,  Conn.,  29 

Newburgh,  N.  Y      Tree  planting,  96 

Nolen,  John,  113 

Noreg  Village,  Gloucester,  N.  J.,  230 
electrical  distribution,  281 

Nuisances.     Effect  on  desirability  of 
dwellings,  56 
effect   on   selection   of  housing 
site,  49 

Nursery,  see  Day  nursery. 

Ojibway,  Ontario,  7,  67 
diagonal  streets,  81 
plan.  111 

Oliphant,  F.  H.  Formula  for  flow 
of  gas,  263 

Ontario  Housing  Committee,  45 

recommended      standards      for 
dwellings,  300 

Organization  of  housing  project, 
see  Housing  project. 

Organizations,  see  Building  organi- 
zations. 

Orientation.      Buildings,  65,  311 
streets,  96 

Origin  of  industrial  housing,  1 

Owen,  Robert  Early  recognition  of 
housing  problem,  4,  6 

Ownership  of  dwellings,  see  Houses. 

Ozone,  see  sterilization,  under  Water 
purification. 

Painting,    see   color   scheme,    under 

Houses. 
Paper,    Waste,    see   rubbish,    under 

Waste  disposal. 
Parking  of  vehicles,  93,  120,  121 
Parks,  72 

area  required,  73 

drives  and  walks,  75 

improvements,  75 

location,  73 

management,  378 


/  x  hi:  \ 


403 


Parks,  preliminary  survey,  L08,  359 
Parks    and     recreational     facilities, 

\n:i,  57,  1  L3 
Parkways,  72,  90,  L08,  112,  I  L6 
Pavements,  122 

allow  able  grades  for  various  Bur- 
faces,  L23,  138 

asphalt,  138 

asphalt  block,  142 

brick,  L38 

burnt  clay,  141 

camber,  126 

cleaning,  see  Streets. 

cobblestone.  1  11,142 

concrete,  L2  t.  128 

concrete,  bituminous,  132 

concrete,  cement ,  133 

earl  b  roads,  129 

erosion  by  storm  water,  215 

foundations,  123 

granite  block,  140 

gravel  roads,  l.'}0 

joints.  134,  11!) 

limestone  block,  140 

macadam,  bituminous,  131 

macadam,  tar,  131 

macadam,  water  bound,  130 

materials,  123,  127,  129,  137 

permissible  loading,  1 '_'.'! 

repairs,  148 

rock  asphalt,  141 

run-off    from    various    surfaces, 
213 

sand-clay  roads,  129 

sand  cushion  for  brick,  139 

sheet  asphalt,  137 

slag  block.  1  10 

stone  block,  1 41) 

subdrainage,  L24 

surface  drainage,  124 

vitrified  brick,  140 

wood  block,    1  10 

Paving  brick,  si <  Pavements. 

Paving  materials.  se<    Pavements. 
Payroll,   forecasted,  326 

regulated,  L5 
sec  also  Wag< 
Per   capita    consumption    <>f    water, 
s<  e  Water  consumption. 


Percentage  of  land  for  dwellings,  58 
for  recreal  tonal  purposes,  57 
for  si  reets  and  alleys,  57 
Pioneer  work  in  industrial  housing. 

L,  3 
Piping,   see   Gas;   Sewage   dipsosal; 

Water  di.-t  ribul  ion. 
Pitt -burgh.      Choice  of  building  ma- 
terials. :J,19 
Planning    of     housing    project. 

Housing  projeel . 

Plant,  see  generation,  under  Elec- 
tricity supply;  Factory; 
Sewage  disposal;  Waste 
disposal. 

Planting  strips.     Width  95,  121 

Playgrounds,  70.  353 

area  and  location,  76 
improvement.  77 

Pole,  Dr.,  Formula  for  flow  of  gas, 
269 

Pole  lines.     Location,  103 

Police  call  systems,  286 
protection,  381,  386 

Porches,  see  Houses. 

Potable  water,  see  Water. 

Preliminary  survey  for  housing  pro- 
ject, 30,  32,  44.  107 

Privacy  iir  various  types  of  house, 
310,  311,  314 

Producer  gas,  see  Gas. 

Profile  of  streets,  see  Streets. 

Profits,  see  Financial  returns. 

Program  for  development  of  housing 
project,  see  technical  pro- 
gram, under  Housing  pro- 
ject. 

Progress  reports,  see  Housing  pro- 
ject. 

Proximity  of  home  to  factory.   11.   ll* 

Public  health  administration,  see 
Industrial  town. 

Public  utilities.     Cost,.*.-  Cost. 

location,    101 

of   industrial   town   as   revenue 
producers,  385 
Pullman.  111.,  6 
Pumps,   17:! 

air  lift,  1  75 


404 


INDEX 


Pumps,  centrifugal,  174 

deep  well  pumping,  175 
reciprocating,  173 
see  also    pumping     of    sewage, 
under  Sewerage. 
Purchase  of  land,  47 
Purification    of    water,    see    Water 
purification. 

Quarters,    see    Boarding    houses; 
Houses. 

Racial  and  national  considerations 
32 

Radial  streets,  see  Street  systems. 

Rags,     see    rubbish,     under    Waste 
disposal. 

Railroads,  see  Transportation  facili- 
ties. 

Rainfall,  210 

capacity   of    combined    sewers, 

220 
see    also    surface  water,    under 
Water  supply. 

Ready-cut  houses,  see  Houses. 

Realty  associations,  28 

Recommended  standards  for  dwell- 
ings, see  Houses. 

Recreation  buildings,  78 

Recreational  facilities.     Area,  57 

Refrigerating  plant,  348 

Refuse  disposal,  see  Waste  disposal. 

Rent,   Proportion   of  income  avail- 
able for,  23,  294 

'Reservoir,    see   Water   distribution; 
storage,  under  Water  sup- 
ply- 
Residential  districts,  59 

Revenues  of  industrial  town,  385 

Road  materials,  see  Pavements. 

Rock  asphalt,  see  Pavements. 

Rooms,  see  Houses. 

Rotary  converter,  see  Electric  dis- 
tribution. 

Row     duplex,     see    duplex,     under 
Houses. 

Row  dwellings,  see  Houses. 

Rubbish  disposal,  see  Waste  disposal. 

Run-off,  210,  212 


Run-off,  see  also  surface  water,  under 

Water  supply. 
Rural  industries,  12,  42 

Sand  filtration,  see  Water  purifica- 
tion. 
Sand-clay  roads,  see  Pavements. 
Sanitary  sewers,  see  Sewers. 
Sanitation.     Influence  on  industrial 
housing,  4,  43,  366 

living  quarters,  16 
Scarcity  of  houses,  see  House  short- 
age. 
School  houses,  350 
School  system   of   industrial  town, 

383,  386 
Scrap    metal,     see    rubbish,     under 

Waste  disposal. 
Set-back  in  front  of  houses,  63,  64, 

65,  66,  99 
Sewage,  see  Sewage  disposal;  Sewer- 
age. 
Sewage  disposal,  192,  221,  377 

budget,  359 

characteristics  of  sewage,  224 

decomposition  of  sewage,  226 

dilution,  226,  228 

disinfection,  234 

filtration,  233,  236 

methods,  230,  235 

plant  construction,  238 

location,  235,  237 

specifications,  238 

purposes,  222 

screening,  230,  235 

septic  tank,  232 

sterilization,  236 

tank  treatment,  232,  235 
Sewage   treatment,    see  Sewage  dis- 
posal. 
Sewerage,  189,  377 

cost,  see  Cost  of  sewers. 

dependence  on  grading,  102 

design,  196 

effect  of  ground  water,  196,  199 

grades,  see  Sewers. 

infiltration,  195 

inverted  siphons,  209 

pumping  of  sewage,  209 


INDKX 


40r, 


Sewerage,  quantity  of  sewage,  192 

domestic,   L93 
industrial,  194 
rate  of  sewage  How  197,  199,  200 

size  of  Sewers,  see  Sewers. 
systems,  190,  196 
trade  waste,  194,  195 
Sewers.     Cost,  see  Cost, 
depth,  202 
fillers,  208 
flush  tanks,  208 
foundations,  209 
grades,  201 

house  connections,  204,  200 
joints,  208 
location,  202 
manholes,  206,  208 
sizes,  202 

terra  cotta  pipe,  206 
see      also      Combined      sewers; 
Storm  drainage. 
Shale  brick,  see  Pavements. 
Shape  of  tract  for  housing,  see  Hous- 
ing project. 
Shelter  a  primitive  necessity,  1 
Shower  baths,  41 
Sidewalks,  143 

asphalt  mastic,  145 

bituminous  macadam,  146 

brick,  145 

cinder,  146 

coloring,  144 

concrete,  144 

concrete,  tar,  145 

drainage,  99 

granite,  145 

gravel,  146 

on  residential  streets,  87,  121 

slag,  146 

slopes,  143 

stone,  145 
eubgrade,  143 

width,  95,  143 

width  on  business  streets,  i  i«» 

width  on  residential  streets,  121 

Single    duplex    house,    see   duplex, 
under  Houses. 

Siphons,  see  inverted  siphons,   „„,/,,. 

Sewerage. 


Site,  see  Factory  site;  Bousing  site; 

Industrial  low  nsite. 
Skilled  workmen,  see  Workmen. 
Skyb'ghts,  see  Houses. 
Slag  blocks,  .see  Pavements. 
Social  customs  of  community.     Ef- 
fect on  selection  of  housing 
site,  51 
Soil  conditions.     Effect  on  selection 
of  housing  site,  48 
topographic  map,  109 
Spacing  of  houses,  see  Distance  be- 
tween houses. 
Specifications,    see    special   subjects. 
Sports,  see  Athletic  fields. 
Standards  in  housing,  see  Houses. 
Steam  power  plant,  see  generation, 

under  Electricity  supply. 
Stock    feeding,    see   garbage,    under 

Waste  disposal. 
Stone  block,  see  Pavements. 
Store  buildings,  341 
lighting,  344 
size,  343 
ventilation,  344 
Stores,  Company,  380 

cooperative,  381 
Storm  drainage,  210,  214 
budget,  359 

catch  basins  and  inlets,  218 
depth  of  drains,  217 
design,  216 

discharge  formulae,  216 
flow,  217 

gutter  drainage,  99,  127,  147,215 
house  connections,  217 
joints  and  tillers,  217 
manholes,  218 
roof  water,  214 
size  of  drains,  217 
street  water,  215 
Stream  gaging,  see  Water  supply. 
Stream    pollution,    see    Water   puri- 
fication. 
Street  cleaning,  see  Streets. 
Street       improvements.      Cost.       set 
Cost;  Streets. 

Streel  lighting,  see  Electric  lighting; 
Orientation. 


406 


INDEX 


Street  railways.     Location,  101 

see   also    Transportation   facili- 
ties. 
Street  sweepings,  see  Waste  disposal. 
Street  systems,  53,  79,  112,  113 
contour,  82 
diagonal,  81 
geometrical,  81 
gridiron,  79 
radial,  81 

rational  arrangement,  84 
rectangular,  79 
Streets,  85,  118,  359 
area,  57 

arterial,  85,  119,  122 
business,  89,  119 
classification,  85,  118 
cleaning,  146,  148 
cost  of  improving,  104 
court,  95 
dead  end,  95 
design,  93,  122 
easements,  100 
"elastic"  street,  to  be  widened 

later,  93 
grades,   56,  87,  89,  90,  97,   122 
intersections,  97,  98 
light  requirements,  see  Orienta- 
tion, 
preliminary  survey,  107 
profiles,  97,  100 
residential,  88,  121,  122 
secondary  or  subarterial  87,  120 
street  railway  location  101,  119, 

120 
subdivisions,  94 
width,  86,  87,  89,  90,  92,   118, 

119,  121 
see     also     Alleys,     Boulevards; 
Curbs;       Grading;      Pave- 
ments;   Sidewalks;    Street 
systems. 
Stucco,  see  Building  materials. 
Subdrainage,        see        Foundations; 

Pavements;  Sidewalks. 
Subsidies,  10,  11,  14,  21,  22 
Suburban  town,  sec  Industrial  town. 
Sumps,  see  Grading. 
Sumps,  Cellar  202,  203 


Sun  Village,  Chester,  Pa,  64 

Sunlight,  see  Orientation. 

Supervision  of  housing  construction, 
354 

Survey,  see  Housing  site;  Map; 
Preliminary  survey;  Topo- 
graphic survey. 

Taylor,  Graham  R.    Effect  of  indus- 
trial congestion,  5 
Technical  program  for  housing  pro- 
ject, 30 
Telegraph         service.     Installation, 

286 
Telephone        service.     Installation, 

286 
Tenements,  see  Mill  tenements. 
Theatres,  352 

Thoroughfares,       see       Pavements; 
Streets;  Transportation  fa- 
cilities. 
Time  spent  between  home  and  fac- 
tory, 40 
in    factory    vs.    time    spent    in 
community,  13 
Toilet  rooms,  see  Boarding  houses; 

Houses. 
Topographic  survey,  108 
Topography  of  land  for  housing,  48, 

55,  196 
Town   management,    see    Industrial 

town. 
Town  plan.     Development,  53,  110 
preliminary,  110 
see  also  Housing  project. 
Town  wastes,   see  Sewage  disposal; 
Sewerage;  Waste  disposal. 
Towns,  see  Community. 
Towns,     Company,     see    Industrial 

town. 
Tmvnsite,  see  Industrial  townsite. 
Trade  waste,   see  Sewage  disposal; 
Sewerage;  Waste  disposal. 
Transformers,  see  Electric  distribu- 
tion;      Electric      lighting. 
Transmission  line,  see  right  of  way, 
under  Electric  transmission. 
Transportation  between  home  and 
factory,  40,  44 


INDEX 


407 


Transportation  facilities.     Effecl  on 

.selection   of   housing   Bite, 
49,  50 
highways,  50 
motor  trucks,  50,  36S 
roads,    during    construction    of 

housing  project,  367 
steam  and  elect  ric  roads,  49 
see  also  grades,    under  Streets. 
Trees.     Planting   scheme   at    New- 
burg,  X.  Y..  96 
survey  for  topographic  map,  109 
Turnover,  s<  i  Labor  turnover. 
"Types"   and    "grades"  of  houses. 
Distinction,  308 

Ultra   violet    rays,   see  sterilization, 
under    Water    purification. 
United  States  Housing  Corporation, 
9 
cost  of  projects,  20 
density  of  housing,  44,  58 
park  projects,  73 
rainfall  records,  211 
sewage    disposal    recommenda- 
tions, 227 
sewerage,  198 
street  grades,  87 
United  States  Labor  Bureau.     Sta- 
tistics   of   industrial   hous- 
ing, 301 
United    States   Labor    Department. 
Recommended   standards 
for  dwellings,  300 
United  States  Shipping   Board,   see 
Emergency  Fleet  Corpora- 
tion. 
United  States  Steel  Corporation,   7 
Unskilled  workmen,   see  Workmen. 
Urban  industries.   12,    12 

see  also  ( Jongesl  ion  of  industries. 
Utilities,  see  Public  utilities. 

Valves,  set  distribution,  under  Gas; 
Water  distribution. 

\  eider.  Law  rence.  Recommended 
standards  for  dwellings, 
299 


Ventilation,  see  Houses;  Store  build- 
ings. 
Vitrified  brick,  sec  Pavements. 


Wages,  14,  329 

see  also  Expenditure-;    Payroll. 
Walks,  -see  Sidewalks. 

War  housing,  see  Cantonment  con- 
struction. 
Waste  disposal,  240,  377 

ashes.  243,  217 

budget,  359 

character  of  municipal  wastes, 
240 

collection,  245 

contract  system,  248 

cost,  249 

garbage  240,  246 
burial.  250 
reduction,  252 
stock  feeding,  251 

incineration,  253 

license  system,  248 

plant,  245 

reduction,  250,  252 

rubbish,  241,  217 

street  sweepings,  243 

see  also  Sewage  disposal;  Sewer- 
age. 
Water.     Alkalinity,  160 

bacterial  content,  158,  169 

chemical  properties,  159 

classification,  158 

color,  158,  165,  169,  170 

hardness.  1(10,  163 

iron,  160,  L66 

mineral  content,  159,  160 

odor.  159 

organic  content.  159,  160,  163, 
165 

physical  properl  ies,  158 

quality  .  s<  t  Standards. 

standard.-..    I  57,    161,    166 

turbidity,  159,  168 

see  also  <  rround  water;  Storm 
drainage;  Water  distribu- 
tion;    Water    purification; 

Water    supply. 


408 


INDEX 


Water  consumption,   151,   153,   150, 

194 
Water  distribution,  172,  175 
piping,  175,  179 

cement  lined,  185 
depth  181,  186 
house  service,  183 
lead,  184,  185 
size  of  service  pipe,  184 
specifications,  186 
reservoirs,  175 
standpipes,  see  Reservoirs. 
tanks,  see  Reservoirs, 
valves,  183 

water  mains.     Length,  181 
tapping,  183 
Water  mains,  sec  Water  distribution. 
Water  metering,  150,  153 
Water  pipe,  see  Water  distribution. 
Water  pressure,  see  Water  supply. 
Water  purification,  166 

chemicals  employed,  172 
coagulation,  169 
distillation,  167 
filtration,  167 

rapid  sand,  168,  171 
slow  sand,  168 
sedimentation,  167 
sterilization,  170 
Water  rates,  see  Water  supply. 
Water  supply,  150,  359,  377 

consumption,    see    Water    con- 
sumption, 
cost,  187 

development  of  system,  162 
distribution,     see     Water     dis- 
tribution, 
extension  of  system,  161 
fire  service,  172,  176,  366 
garages,  317 
ground  water  supply,  see  Ground 

water, 
pollution,    see    Water    purifica- 
tion. 


Water    supply,    pressure,  161,  172, 
175,  177 
pumping,  see  Pumps, 
quality,    see    standards,     under 

Water  supply, 
quantity,  166 
rates,  188 
recommendations  for  dwellings, 

304 
revenue,  188 
selection,  161,  166 
source,  229 
storage,  163,  164 
stream  gaging,  164 
surface  water,  163,  165 
temporary,  367 
wells,  see  Ground  water. 
Water  waste,  151,  155 
Waterproofing,  see  Houses. 
Width  of  sidewalks,  see  Sidewalks. 

of  streets,  see  Streets. 
Women   and   minors.     Housing    re- 
quirements, 330,  340 
Wood  block,  see  Pavements. 
Working    day.     Proportion    of    en- 
tire   time    of    work  its,    13 
Workmen.     Number  per  house,  329 
proportion   of   skilled   and   un- 
skilled, 15,  326 
proportion    of    unmarried,    329 
single.     Housing  required,  328, 
334 


Yorkship    Village,    Camden,    N.    J., 
61,  144 
sewage  disposal,  230 
store  building,  342 
street  arrangement,  82 
Youngstown  Sheet  &  Tube  Co.,  62, 
113 


Zoning,  55,  66,  67,  107 


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